I’m curious about “respectability politics” and how it applies to variations on the “born this way“ / “it’s not a choice” argument for toleration of homosexuality.
I’ve heard that “respectability politics” was theorized by Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham in Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church 1880-1920, which I have not read yet. (Although this might be a good time to start it, cause I’m just about to finish my current book!) My impression was that it referred to appeals to middle-class norms of respectability as a basis for claims to citizenship and protection and nondiscrimination under the law.
I associate the “it’s not a choice” discourse (and I’m not entirely sure if that’s a bit different from the “born this way” discourse) mostly with a counterargument to conservative Christian pronouncements about homosexuality in the US. I had previously rejected the idea that this argument was a form of “respectability politics,” because I didn’t think that “not being able to choose your sexuality” was a typical marker of middle-class respectable citizenship. I had instead described this argument as “toleration politics,” where, rather than being seen as meeting moral (or citizenship) requirements just as well as everyone else, a special exemption from the standard requirement was being requested based on a (tragic) inability to fulfill it.
But I’m thinking about some things I’ve read and feel like variations of these arguments (which each have their own particularity, but also some commonalities imo) may have more to do with respectability than I originally thought.
But the other part of the equation is that they may involve appeals to religious patriarchal moral authorities. And I’m curious about the relationship between patriarchal religious morality--which I would basically describe like that, although I’m trying to work “religious” out of it--and class and citizenship dynamics. Because it seems like, at least in Christianity (and also in Islam from what I know about it), the acknowledged orthodox sexual morality is patriarchal and doesn’t authorize sex outside heterosexual marriage, even if it overlooks it. (But what variations might I be overlooking because they’re not considered orthodox by more institutionalized authorities?) Is there an automatic link between orthodox patriarchal sexual morality and “middle-class respectability,” just because the former is taken as a basis for the later? In the US, appeals to Christian patriarchal morality are also important to citizenship given the influence of Christian conservatives in politics, but is this also/only about middle-class ideals? (This has all got me thinking about the argument I heard Naomi Goldenberg make on The Religious Studies Project that religions can be understood as vestigial states.) I’m also thinking of religious authority here in terms of patriarchal authority: is this a good way to think about it and how is it incomplete?
Anyway, there are some passages that have been fitting themselves together in my brain:
Karen, editor of Frauenliebe, used sexological concepts of congenital and acquired homosexuality to draw a strict boundary between the two. She argued that anyone seeking same-sex love out of enjoyment of transgression [acquired homosexuality] damaged society and should be "separated from the public." On the other hand, Karen continued, "Same-sex behavior, entered into voluntarily and clearly by both partners [congenital homosexuality], belongs, like every intimate heterosexual behavior, to the realm of things one accepts but does not talk about."[68] Karen also warned aspiring writers to avoid writing explicitly about sexual experience in their stories and essays.[69]
Categorical exclusion shaped a debate in Frauenliebe about bisexuality. Like prostitutes, bisexuals were excluded from homosexual community. Frauenliebe printed fifteen responses to a letter asking readers to express their view on women who had relationships with both sexes.[70] They saw homosexuality as moral and bisexuality as immoral. It was not only movement leaders who wanted to discipline sexual desire in their followers. Letters from readers grouped bisexual women with prostitutes and "sensual" heterosexual women, accusing all of seeking homosexual experiences out of curiosity or sensual desire rather than as an expression of inner character.[71] [...]
Vilification of bisexual women allowed women the opportunity to enter into the classification and definition work of sexology and to create a purified figure of the female homosexual suitable for political citizenship. The "sexual" in homosexual was tamed through strict denial that irresistible desire defined the category. Rejection of prostitutes and bisexuals allowed women to construct "female homosexuality" as materially and sexually pure. As a type, they argued, "true" homosexuals kept desire under the control of the individual will.
-- Marti M Lybeck, Desiring Emancipation: New Women and Homosexuality in Germany, 1890-1933, 2015 Fuller quote here. This one links sexual morality and citizenship most directly and perhaps in the most “respectable” way (the realm of things you don’t talk about).
To understand how MSM is read, it is important to examine how explicit and implicit boundaries are drawn around the category gay. Consider, for example, a passage from Paul Farmer in which he claims that, in recent years, there have been fewer HIV cases than predicted among gay men in the United States, a category he implicitly racializes as White via the contrast with “injection drug users, inner-city people of color, and persons originally from poor countries in sub-Saharan Africa or the Caribbean.”21(p47) He further excludes gay from poor and suggests that “males involved in prostitution are almost universally poor, and it may be their poverty, rather than their sexual preference, that puts them at risk of HIV infection. Many men involved in homosexual prostitution, particularly minority adolescents, do not necessarily identify as gay.”21(p47) With this juxtaposition, Farmer seems to suggest that same-gender behavior among poor men of color (especially youth) is sex work rather than sex for pleasure and is devoid of identity and community; same-gender behavior among White men is read as synonymous with gay identity.
Compare these assumptions with a recent ethnographic report on men at risk for HIV in Dakar, Senegal.22 While many of these “men who have sex with men” are poor and engage in sex work, the authors found that they have indigenous sexual-minority identities that are differentiated and socially meaningful. Senegalese sexual-minority identities serve as a basis for social organization, including, but not limited to, sexual roles. The authors describe ibbi as men who “tend to adopt feminine mannerism[s] and to be less dominant in sexual interactions,”22(p505) whereas yoos are men who “are generally the insertive partner.” They also stress that the categories have “more to do with social identity and status than with sexual practices.”22(p506) [...]
Is MSM a useful term for describing groups that eschew prominent LGB categories? Much has been made of the fact that men on the DL lead secret lives and do not consider themselves gay.25,26 But DL is not a behavioral category that can be conveyed as MSM. As Frank Leon Roberts has put it, “DL is . . . about performing a new identity and embracing a hip-hop sensibility [italics added].”27DL functions not as a nonidentity but as an alternative sexual identity and community denoting same-gender interest, masculine gender roles distinct from the feminized sissy or faggot, Black racial/ethnic identity, and a dissociation from both White and Black middle-class gay cultures.26–28
-- “The Trouble With “MSM” and “WSW”: Erasure of the Sexual-Minority Person in Public Health Discourse,“ by Rebecca M Young and Ilan H Meyer, published in American Journal of Public Health, July 2005. This one doesn’t deal with the “it’s not a choice" argument directly, but suggests who people might want to exclude and have actually excluded in practice from categories of “sexual orientation" and “born this way” gay identity.
Omar’s analysis of linguistic terms has direct impact upon the issue of interpretation of the Qur’an. This analysis, published in 1997, predated the El-Moumni Affair by four years, yet illustrates exactly the conflation of terms which the imam pronounced in that controversial interview. Omar writes, “Many words are used to express sexual relationships that take place between man-and-man or between woman-and-woman. . . . Whether in modern standard Arabic or local dialects, there are terms like sexual deviance (al-shudhudh al-jinsiyya) and sodomy (al-liwat) and also homosexuality (al-junusiyya). . . . The problem is that most people use these different terms as synonyms, creating a situation of naming experiences with names that do not really fit, thereby generating misunderstanding and confusion about the topic of sexual orientation. . . . I see the critical importance of writing about homosexuality as the attempt to remove these confusing mix-ups of terms and issues.”[15] In this crucial passage, Omar explains that his project is to differentiate between homosexuality and sodomy. In his understanding, the Qur’an condemns sodomy as the act of anal penetration rather than homosexuality as sexual orientation, while the Islamic legal tradition mistakenly conflates the two.[16]
The distinction between homosexuality and sodomy makes sense if one asserts that there is a psychological reality called sexual orientation, which is separate from and prior to any sexual act. He writes, “Sex is a phenomenon that happens by way of the body, whereas sexuality is a matter existing at the level of psyche and personality.”[17] In his analysis, only a person with a psychological identity of constant and exclusive same-sex desire should be called “homosexual” (junusi in his terminology, or mithli jinsiyya in the Arabic terminology of other contemporary writers). The person who performs same-sex acts without doing so within the framework of exclusively homosexual orientation can be described as sodomite (luti). It is this behavior that characterizes the Tribe of Lot, who wanted to perform same-sex acts for reasons other than as a genuine expression of their sexual identity and psychological persona.[18] Omar’s analysis challenges classical Islamic law. Jurists instituted practical norms forbidding same-sex acts such as sodomy (liwat), with the assumption that those performing them were, in their inmost character, actually heterosexual (or at least functionally bisexual).
--Living Out Islam: Voices of Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims, by Scott Siraj al-Haqq Kugle, 2014. I read this one yesterday. I can’t be sure whether bisexual people are considered at all, even as a footnote, in Omar’s analysis, and if they are, whether their pursuit of same-gender sex would be categorized with the acceptable homosexuals or unacceptable heterosexuals. I’m not sure here if Omar has in mind for sodomy rape specifically, or any anal penetration, or sexual activity (anal or not) between men that’s perceived as ‘voluntary’ rather than following the demands of exclusive sexual orientation.
But I think it’s interesting how intent/context/constraint of orientation is factored into ethical analysis here and in the first quote, in a way that accepts some forms of or reasons for having same-gender sex as unethical or socially disruptive. And in the first quote, these ‘voluntary’ expressions are imagined to be rooted in hypersexuality and sex work, distinctly un-middle-class. The last quote is engaging with Islamic legal traditions as well as theology, and I don’t know much about how this articulates with “citizenship,” although the author was writing in the Netherlands where LGBT rights were guaranteed by secular authorities.
Anyway, that’s what was bouncing around my head last night.
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MP's who voted against free school meals: Part 1
Nigel Adams (Selby and Ainsty),
Bim Afolami (Hitchin and Harpenden),
Adam Afriyie (Windsor),
Imran Ahmad Khan (Wakefield),
Nickie Aiken (Cities of London and Westminster),
Peter Aldous (Waveney), Lucy Allan (Telford),
David Amess (Southend West), Lee Anderson (Ashfield),
Stuart Anderson (Wolverhampton South West),
Stuart Andrew (Pudsey),
Edward Argar (Charnwood),
Sarah Atherton (Wrexham),
Victoria Atkins (Louth and Horncastle),
Gareth Bacon (Orpington),
Richard Bacon (South Norfolk),
Kemi Badenoch (Saffron Walden),
Shaun Bailey (West Bromwich West),
Duncan Baker (North Norfolk),
Steve Baker (Wycombe),
Harriett Baldwin (West Worcestershire),
Steve Barclay (North East Cambridgeshire),
Simon Baynes (Clwyd South),
Aaron Bell (Newcastle-under-Lyme),
Scott Benton (Blackpool South),
Paul Beresford (Mole Valley),
Jake Berry (Rossendale and Darwen),
Saqib Bhatti (Meriden),
Bob Blackman (Harrow East),
Crispin Blunt (Reigate),
Peter Bone (Wellingborough),
Peter Bottomley (Worthing West),
Andrew Bowie (West Aberdeenshire and Kincardine),
Ben Bradley (Mansfield),
Karen Bradley (Staffordshire Moorlands),
Graham Brady (Altrincham and Sale West),
Suella Braverman (Fareham),
Jack Brereton (Stoke-on-Trent South),
Andrew Bridgen (North West Leicestershire),
Steve Brine (Winchester),
Paul Bristow (Peterborough),
Sara Britcliffe (Hyndburn),
James Brokenshire (Old Bexley and Sidcup),
Anthony Browne (South Cambridgeshire),
Fiona Bruce (Congleton),
Felicity Buchan (Kensington),
Robert Buckland (South Swindon),
Alex Burghart (Brentwood and Ongar),
Conor Burns (Bournemouth West),
Rob Butler (Aylesbury),
Alun Cairns (Vale of Glamorgan),
Andy Carter (Warrington South),
James Cartlidge (South Suffolk),
William Cash (Stone),
Miriam Cates (Penistone and Stocksbridge),
Maria Caulfield (Lewes), Alex Chalk (Cheltenham),
Rehman Chishti (Gillingham and Rainham),
Jo Churchill (Bury St Edmunds),
Greg Clark (Tunbridge Wells),
Simon Clarke (Middlesbrough South and East Cleveland),
Theo Clarke (Stafford),
Brendan Clarke-Smith (Bassetlaw),
Chris Clarkson (Heywood and Middleton),
James Cleverly (Braintree),
Therese Coffey (Suffolk Coastal),
Damian Collins (Folkestone and Hythe),
Alberto Costa (South Leicestershire),
Robert Courts (Witney),
Claire Coutinho (East Surrey),
Geoffrey Cox (Torridge and West Devon),
Virginia Crosbie (Ynys Mon),
James Daly (Bury North),
David T C Davies (Monmouth),
James Davies (Vale of Clwyd),
Gareth Davies (Grantham and Stamford),
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Flick Drummond (Meon Valley),
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Michael Ellis (Northampton North),
Tobias Ellwood (Bournemouth East),
Natalie Elphicke (Dover),
George Eustice (Camborne and Redruth),
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David Evennett (Bexleyheath and Crayford),
Ben Everitt (Milton Keynes North),
Michael Fabricant (Lichfield),
Laura Farris (Newbury),
Simon Fell (Barrow and Furness), Katherine Fletcher (South Ribble), Mark Fletcher (Bolsover), Nick Fletcher (Don Valley), Vicky Ford (Chelmsford), Kevin Foster (Torbay),
Mark Francois (Rayleigh and Wickford),
Lucy Frazer (South East Cambridgeshire),
George Freeman (Mid Norfolk),
Mike Freer (Finchley and Golders Green),
Richard Fuller (North East Bedfordshire),
Marcus Fysh (Yeovil),
Mark Garnier (Wyre Forest),
Nusrat Ghani (Wealden),
Nick Gibb (Bognor Regis and Littlehampton),
Peter Gibson (Darlington),
Jo Gideon (Stoke-on-Trent Central),
Cheryl Gillan (Chesham and Amersham),
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Robert Goodwill (Scarborough and Whitby),
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Chris Green (Bolton West),
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Jonathan Gullis (Stoke-on-Trent North),
Luke Hall (Thornbury and Yate),
Stephen Hammond (Wimbledon),
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Greg Hands (Chelsea and Fulham),
Mark Harper (Forest of Dean),
Rebecca Harris (Castle Point),
Trudy Harrison (Copeland),
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Simon Hart (Carmarthen West and South Pembrokeshire),
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Jane Hunt (Loughborough),
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Tom Hunt (Ipswich),
Alister Jack (Dumfries and Galloway),
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Andrea Jenkyns (Morley and Outwood),
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Sheryll Murray (South East Cornwall),
Andrew Murrison (South West Wiltshire),
Robert Neill (Bromley and Chislehurst),
Caroline Nokes (Romsey and Southampton North),
Jesse Norman (Hereford and South Herefordshire),
Neil O'Brien (Harborough),
Guy Opperman (Hexham),
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Mike Penning (Hemel Hempstead),
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Nicola Richards (West Bromwich East),
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Laurence Robertson (Tewkesbury),
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Andrew Rosindell (Romford),
Lee Rowley (North East Derbyshire),
Dean Russell (Watford),
David Rutley (Macclesfield),
Gary Sambrook (Birmingham, Northfield),
Selaine Saxby (North Devon), Paul Scully (Sutton and Cheam),
Bob Seely (Isle of Wight), Andrew Selous (South West Bedfordshire),
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