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reasonsforhope · 10 months

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"Similar to the expeditions of a hundred or two hundred years ago, the Tara Pacific expedition lasted over two years. Its goal was to research the conditions for life and survival of corals. The ship crossed the entire Pacific Ocean, assembling the largest genetic inventory conducted in any marine system to date. The team's 70 scientists from eight countries took around 58,000 samples from the hundred coral reefs studied.

The first results of the analysis have now been published in Nature Communications. This largest-ever data set collection on coral reef ecosystems is freely available, and for years to come, will be the basis for elucidating the living conditions for corals and finding a way for them to survive climate change.

Important first results of the expedition show that global microbial biodiversity is much higher than previously thought. The impacts of the environment on evolutionary adaptation are species-specific, and important genes in corals are duplicated.

Global biodiversity ten times higher than assumed

Coral reefs are the most biologically diverse marine ecosystem on Earth. Although they cover only 0.16% of the world's oceans, they are home to about 35% of known marine species. Using a genetic marker-based data set, the researchers found that all of the globally estimated bacterial biodiversity is already contained in the microorganisms of coral reefs.

"We have been completely underestimating the global microbial biodiversity," says Christian Voolstra, professor of genetics of adaptation in aquatic systems at the University of Konstanz and scientific coordinator of the Tara Pacific expedition. He says the current estimate of biodiversity (approximately five million bacteria) is underestimated by about a factor of 10.

Impacts of the environment on evolutionary adaptation are species-specific

The 32 archipelagos studied serve as natural laboratories and provide a wide range of environmental conditions, allowing scientists to disentangle the relationships between environmental and genetic parameters across large spatial scales. This led to another important finding: The effects the environment has on evolutionary adaptation trajectories of corals are species-specific. To determine this, the researchers examined the telomeres, the ends of chromosomes that are the carriers of genetic information, for the first time.

In humans, the length of telomeres decreases during life; that is, with an increasing number of cell divisions, suggesting that biological age is closely linked to the length of telomeres. Researchers on the Tara Pacific expedition have now found that the telomeres in very stress-resistant corals are always the same length. "They apparently have a mechanism to preserve the lengths of their telomeres," Voolstra concludes...

Important genes are duplicated

Research data from the Tara Pacific expedition brought to light that the long life of some coral species may have yet another reason: the duplication of certain genes. Many important genes are present multiple times in the genome. The researchers were able to determine this through sequencing of coral genomes employing a new high-resolution technique.

This technique, called long-read sequencing, makes it possible to not only determine the set of genes present, but also to look at their order in the genome. According to Voolstra, the pervasive presence of gene duplication could be a possible explanation for why corals can live for thousands of years despite being exposed, for instance, to extreme UV radiation in shallow waters.

The entire data collection is freely accessible

All data sets are openly accessible and fully described with accompanying physical and chemical measurements to provide them as a scientific resource to all researchers.

"This is unique," Voolstra says. "It is the largest data set collection on coral reefs ever collected and it is completely open access." The aspiration is that this data collection will serve as a foundation and inventory to guide future study of coral reefs worldwide for many years."

-via Phys.org, June 26, 2023

#coral #coral reef #ocean #ocean conservation #biodiversity #microbiology #genetic diversity #genetic research #conservation #telomeres #genetics #climate change #evolution #ocean life #open access #good news #hope

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sunnysam-my · 13 days

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Is it possible for Danny to have a female clone as a male?

Short answer: Kinda. There are multiple options.

I'm not an expert by no means, but I'll try to simplify cloning for you. Also, reproductive cloning of humans is more of theoretical field than anything.

Let's start of with this: Dani probably isn't exactly a clone. A cloned embryo is essentially an identical twin of the original organism. She isn't that, because she isn't the same sex. Even if clones are genetically identical with one another, they will not be identical in physical or behavioral characteristics, because DNA is not the only determinant of these characteristics. That's why she is shorter, not as thin, behaves differently etc. Dani was made by reproductive cloning - the process of cloning an entire organism.

So, how to make Dani out of Danny?

To create a female clone from a man you could take his cells and turn off the Androgen receptor genes. The person will develop as female with XY chromosomes and will have Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome. This method creates genotypically male individual but phenotypically female, making them intersex. This would make a clone, but it wouldn't be "genetically" female.

Deleting the Y chromosome. This will create a female child with Turner's Syndrome. Most of the effects of which can be countered with hormone supplements at appropriate development stages.

Duplicate the male X chromosome - turning an XY into an XX. Though the resulting individual wouldn't be a perfect clone because the proportions of source DNA wouldn't be right, all the source material would come from the original male.

Bring in donor chromosomes from an unrelated female. All other genes will be identical to the "parent's" genome, and by controlling which X is active (only single X is active in a female). The 'clone' wouldn't be as identical as the other methods.

So yeah, either Danny is trans or Dani is intersex :D

Danny Phantom, Trans icon since 2004

#danny phantom #danny fenton #trans danny #transgender #lgbt #Danny Phantom theory #cartoon #dp #dani phantom #intersex #headcanon #trans #LGBTQ #lgbtqia #queer

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poisonlove · 8 months

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Miss Ortega | j.o

part 7

—The cell is made up of the nucleus and the cytoplasm and is enclosed by the cell membrane, which regulates passage in and out. The nucleus contains chromosomes, the cell's genetic material, and the nucleolus, which produces ribosomes. My eyes shift to Olivia, who was jotting down my words in her notebook.

In the late afternoon, I was at Olivia's house to help her study science, primarily about what a cell is and its functions. Olivia nods, giving me a nervous smile.

—One last question... what's cell division?— She puts the tip of her pen between her teeth, thoughtful.

—Cell division is the process by which a cell multiplies, splitting into two. In prokaryotes, it happens through binary fission (DNA filament duplication and subsequent division into two identical new individuals). In eukaryotes, it occurs through mitosis and, in reproductive cells, meiosis.— I say, shrugging casually.

Olivia writes it all down and then closes her notebook with a soft thud, sighing with satisfaction and tiredness.

—We're done,— she murmurs weakly, looking at me with a smile on her lips.

—We're done,— I repeat, and she stretches, slightly tense from maintaining an uncomfortable position for a long time.

—I'm not surprised you never get a failing grade, you're a book,— she says as she gets up from her desk, flopping onto her bed's mattress.

—Don't exaggerate...— I chuckle and give her a playful look. —Now... will you let me hear something you've written?— I nervously bite my lip, accepting the invitation to sit beside her on the bed.

Olivia sighs and reluctantly agrees to my request, blushing as she looks at me. —Wait,— she murmurs softly, leaning towards the edge of the bed, picking up a guitar case from the floor. Olivia glances at me sideways, holding the guitar in her hands.

—I'll sing you a little snippet of the song, okay? Also... I haven't finished it yet,— she says, toying with the guitar strings, likely tuning it.

I gaze in awe at her profile. Olivia had her head tilted down, holding the guitar in her lap. Her eyes briefly meet mine for a split second before she looks away with flushed cheeks.

Taking a breath, she closes her eyes, focusing.

—And I won't fight for love if you won't meet me halfway...— she begins to sing. And I say that I'm through but this song's still for you–

Her voice sounds angelic, surprising me with her talent. Olivia glances at me briefly, giving me a small smile.

—All I want is love that lasts— her eyes glisten, still looking at me.

—Is all I want too much to ask?— her fingers pause, interrupting the sweet melody. Olivia sets the guitar aside and looks at me with embarrassment, accepting my applause.

—Oh my god... you have an amazing voice,— I admit, and she tucks a strand of hair behind her ear, staring at a fixed point on her lap. —Thank you,— she offers a shy smile, and I reciprocate.

A knock on the door draws our attention to the entrance of her room. Olivia's mother, Emma, is standing there with a smile on her lips.

—T/N, dear, why don't you stay for dinner with us?— Mrs. Rodrigo suggests.

With a smile, I look at Olivia's reaction. She's looking at me with bright eyes and a smile, nodding enthusiastically.

—That would be fantastic,— I reply, and immediately, two arms wrap around my neck, hugging me. The force makes me lie back on the bed, and amid laughter, I return the hug, smiling shyly at Emma, who watches us with tenderness as I hold Olivia in my arms.

(...) —So... how's it going with the girl you like?— Enid asks, hugging a pillow in her arms.

After helping Olivia study, I received an invitation from Enid to have a pajama party at her house, inviting Olivia as well since she was with me. The blonde only knew that I liked someone, but she didn't know who, and for obvious reasons, she was really mad at me. I know she's my best friend, but I still couldn't tell her that I was in love with Professor Ortega.

—Actually, it's all going wrong... she said it's better if I forget what happened,— I lower my head towards my lap, sadly biting my lower lip. —Well, what a jerk...— Enid makes a face. —If only I knew who she was, I would have given her a piece of my mind,— she says absentmindedly, pulling at the corners of the pillow in her hands.

—You tried your best,— I smile sideways, and Enid throws the pillow at my face, messing up my hair. I chuckle slightly and wink at her.

—What do you think about Olivia, though?— she suddenly asks, lying down on the bed. I turn toward the door, relieved when I see that the subject of conversation is still downstairs preparing popcorn for the movie.

—Are you crazy? She's here...— I whisper, and she rolls her eyes at my comment.

—I don't see her,— Enid turns toward me, focusing her attention on me.

I sigh and shake my head. —She's nice...— I shrug indifferently, smiling at the blonde. Enid raises an eyebrow and gives me a smile, silently asking me to tell her more.

—She's beautiful... there's no doubt... but you know I'm in love with someone else,— I play with my fingers, embarrassed by the situation.

—She'd be perfect for you, you know? Plus... she really likes you,— Enid confesses. She adjusts her pajamas and gets under the covers, getting ready to watch the movie on her room's TV.

—I know... but for now... I only see her as a friend,— I tuck a strand of hair behind my ear and look confused at Enid's reaction, who is looking with panic over my shoulder.

I turn to her line of sight and pale when I see Olivia near the door. The brunette awkwardly leaves the popcorn bowl on the shelf and, with tears in her eyes, looks at me, shaking her head with regret. I stand up and bite my lips, mentally scolding myself for being so stupid.

I close the door behind me.

—Liv, wait,— I quickly descend the stairs, trying to catch up with Olivia. The brunette ignores me and walks toward the couches, searching for her jacket. I quicken my pace and grab her wrist. Olivia turns around and looks at me with tear-streaked cheeks, making me feel guilty.

—What do you want? You've said enough,— she says with venom, clenching her jaw.

—Liv...— I whisper, and her eyes glisten. Her shoulders relax, and she tentatively shuffles in place, wanting to hear what I have to say.

—Tell me...— her voice tone is clearly broken, showing that my confession has hurt her. I step closer, placing my hands around her face, wiping away some tears. Her eyes look at me sweetly despite the pain she's feeling. She places a hand against mine, giving me a comforting squeeze.

—Right now... I'm in love with someone else,— she nods, with bitterness in her mouth. —But it doesn't mean that in the future, I can't be with you... if you heard the whole conversation... and I'm pretty sure you did... I said that for now, I see you as a friend,— I smile sidelong, stroking her cheek. Olivia tilts her chin up and licks her lips, looking at me seriously. Suddenly, we're at the same height level since she's on tiptoes. My breath catches in my throat, and I timidly observe what the brunette wants to do.

—Kiss me...— she whispers, closing her eyes and clenching her jaw. —I just want to kiss you... at least once,— she confesses, making my chest tighten. I remove one hand from her face and trail it down her back, stopping at her waist, pulling Olivia closer to me.

—This...— I swallow, nervous due to the proximity. —This I can do— I lean toward her face and close the minimal distance between our lips. The kiss is sweet and at the same time salty from her tears. Olivia wraps her arms around my neck, sighing against my lips, receiving the long-desired kiss. The rhythm of the kiss is slow; we're simply enjoying the contact between our mouths. Olivia taps her tongue against my lower lip, asking for permission to enter. I part my lips, and our tongues meet, tentatively exploring each other's mouths.

I press my forehead against hers after ending the kiss. The brunette has a smile on her lips, looking at me with shining eyes of happiness. She leans in and briefly connects our lips for a split second before pulling away.

—That was... wow,— I admit, and she nods, completely agreeing.

I have to admit that the kiss was beautiful, I really enjoyed it. Her lips were sweet, inviting in a different way from Jenna's. Just mentioning the brunette makes me grimace, and I try to erase the image of her eyes from my mind so as not to ruin the moment. Olivia looks at me smiling, happy about what just happened.

—So... shall we go upstairs to watch the movie?— I suggest, and she nods slowly, starting to climb the stairs, our hands still intertwined.

—So... can you wait? I know it sounds horrible to ask, but I want to know, I want to find out if it's truly over with... the other person. I swear, if she's convinced that our... relationship? I don't know what to call it... is completely over... I'll give myself a chance to be with you,— I timidly ask, nervous about making this proposition. Olivia sighs and nods her head with both sadness and excitement at having a chance with me.

—Yes... you're... you're right, you know? I understand... it's not easy to choose between two girls you like... I'll wait... and if you choose me... I promise I'll never leave, T/N,— she admits, making me shiver slightly at the intensity of her gaze. I blush.

—Alright... because I was already getting ready to chase after you to talk,— I joke, and she chuckles softly, tilting her head back.

Her fingers tighten around my hand, stroking the back of my hand with her thumb.

—I wouldn't have gone anywhere... not in pajamas, obviously,— she raises her head with pride, and I burst out laughing at the expression on her face.

—Well... now let's go watch the movie? Enid's waiting for us,— I suggest, and she nods, starting to climb the stairs while still holding my hand, our fingers entwined.

It was late, but I was still awake, studying for the English literature exam I had the next day. The words on the pages were blurry, and I was unsure if I'd remember half of what I was reading due to how tired I was. But I had to keep going to be able to say that I had at least tried.

The vibration of the phone on the desk pulled my attention away from the book. With a sigh of relief, I picked up the device, thanking my lucky stars for the break. I looked at the screen, puzzled, when I saw that both Olivia and Jenna had messaged me.

I decided to read Olivia's message first.

Liv: heyyy (1:13 AM)

Damn, was it already one in the morning?

Yo: Hey Liv!

Liv: Are you done studying?

I furrowed my brows and nervously bit my lower lip.

Yo: Not really.

Yo: But if you need help, I'm here.

Liv: Great! Actually, you'd do me a huge favor if you could open the window.

I closed the chat and walked over to a corner of my room, spotting Olivia in front of my house, holding her phone. I opened the window and leaned out, smiling at the girl standing on the street.

—What are you doing here?— I whispered, not wanting to wake up the rest of my family.

Olivia looked up from her phone and smiled at me.

As a response, she moved closer to stand right beneath my window, gazing up at the tree near my house. With a swift but careful movement, she started climbing its branches, eventually reaching out to touch the edge of my window with her fingertips.

—Are you crazy or something?— I looked at my friend with concern.

—If you help me, you'd be doing me a favor,— she panted, not being able to hold on much longer.

I extended my hand and grabbed hers, helping her into my room. With a little jump, she made it all the way in, looking at me with a nervous smile.

—So, spill it,— I absentmindedly stared at the lamp light that was focused on the book on my desk. I sighed in frustration.

—In a few days, there's the end-of-semester dance... you know, the start of the Christmas break...— she put her hands in her pockets, blushing as she looked at me.

Oh... I knew where this was going.

—T/N... would you like to come to the dance with me?— she asked, sounding hopeful.

I opened my mouth in surprise and remained silent for a few seconds, wanting to think about her proposal. In reality... I wasn't even sure if I wanted to go, as I didn't want to be a third wheel between Enid and Ajax... but if I had to choose someone to go with... besides Jenna, of course... it would definitely be Olivia Rodrigo.

—Yes...— I whispered, and she leaned slightly forward, not having heard my response. I widened my eyes when I saw the living room light shining through my slightly open door. Quickly, I grabbed Olivia by the shoulders and motioned for her to move towards the window, needing to get out of here immediately. Olivia placed a foot on a tree branch before turning back in my direction.

—So? — my eyes darted towards the door as I used my hands to urge Olivia. I looked at her with wide eyes before nodding repeatedly. —Yes?— she asked, with a smile on her lips.

—Yes! Now go before you get caught— I muttered under my breath, looking at Olivia. She nodded and leaned towards my face, briefly connecting our lips for a split second. I looked at her in surprise but didn't say anything, watching closely as she jumped down from the tree, landing on her feet.

—Goodnight— she smiled at me, waving her hand, and ran down the sidewalk towards her house on the other side of the neighborhood.

With a yawn, I returned to my desk, picked up my phone, turned off the lamp, and collapsed onto my bed. A sigh of relief escaped my mouth as I heard the sound of the toilet flushing.

Well, it was just a bathroom break.

I turned on my phone and went on WhatsApp, reading Jenna's message. I couldn't deny that I was quite nervous; I didn't expect her to message me after days... maybe a week or two without hearing from her.

Ortega: Are you awake?

Yo: Yes.

Jenna's smile appeared on my screen, and I responded to her call with confusion.

—Hello?— I asked, hearing a breath on the other end. Jenna remained silent for a few seconds before speaking.

—Is it true?— she asked, leaving me completely stunned. I got under the covers, trying to figure out what to say.

—What?— I inquired, not exactly sure what she was talking about. She sighed in frustration before gritting her teeth.

—There are rumors at school that you and Rodrigo are together... is it true?— she muttered, sounding both annoyed and curious.

—Excuse me?— I was rather incredulous, not being able to believe what I was hearing. Jenna Ortega had called me in the middle of the night to ask me something like this.

—Is it true or not? ANSWER— she raised her voice, noticeably angry. I could hear her heavy breathing, making me feel uncomfortable and slightly afraid.

—No... We're not together... we're just getting to know each other... that's it,— I confessed, nervously biting my lower lip. —But anyway, isn't it none of your business who I'm dating? After all, you were the one who wanted distance a few days ago,— I retorted, annoyed by her attitude.

Jenna sighed loudly and ended the call, leaving me feeling both triumphant and confused. Whatever had gotten into her, I didn't know, but in any case, she had no right to treat me like this, especially after she wanted to pull away.

I placed the phone on the bedside shelf and closed my eyes, trying to fall asleep. The ghost of Olivia's kiss lingered on my lips, while Jenna's voice echoed in my head.

To say that I'm confused is an understatement.

#wednesday addams x reader #jenna ortega x reader #jenna ortega #jenna ortega x you #miércoles addams #jenna ortega x y/n #wednesday x you #jenna ortega x fem!reader #wednesday addams x you #professor #olivia rodrigo #kisses

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chawarin-panich · 3 months

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Okay so I want to do a genetics thoughts experiment on what’s going on in pit babe if their genetic dna is blueprinted in the same way as ours (aka our cells replicate similarly):

So pregnancy exists in this world for sure on account of the nature of reproducing oneself (like let’s put aside the chrysalis possibilities for a sec okay?). And therefore omegas must definitely be a thing because who else are bearing children?? Certainly not women??? There’s not a single one in this show!!! I’m convinced women don’t exist in this universe. Babe theoretically has a mother and that convinced me for a bit until CHARLIE CALLED HIM MAMA and so all bets are off.

So that actually simplifies things genetically because omegas and alphas can reproduce by XY XX differentiation but then what about ENIGMAS and now this new category of Alpha that is Babe which yes his senses might be heightened but that also makes him breedable suddenly so the senses and the reproductive structure changes must be X-linked.

But babe is pretty easy to explain because of his phenotype being SO RARE. It’s likely a loss of the Y chromosome entirely so he is a XO (where the O is in the place of a blank to indicate single copy X).

It is strange though that so much of the Y chromosome functions to repress the desirable qualities of the X!!! (aka when it’s not there babe gets cool powers) this HAS TO MEAN that something will happen to Babe eventually on the genetic sense that will be…well catastrophic because surely this can’t actually be a desirable trait (it’s fiction he’ll get lucky??)

Which leaves Enigma. So it’s tempting to make the Z a third type of chromosome but it must arise by ANOTHER mistake in the cell replication process (of the gamete you know the cells that fuse with your partners to make a baby) so now we have Z which we can make a rare variation of X because I’m trying to make THE SIMPLEST SYSTEM that still follows the rules of how we reproduce in reality. Anyway Z is therefore more easily called X’

So omega is XX alpha is XY alpha+ is XO and enigma is XX’ okay but the REAL DOOZY IS THIS EXTREMELY SPECIAL BABY THAT TONY NEEDS SO BADLY THAT HE MUST MAKE BABE WAY’S SEX SLAVE

so between an XO (So it’s JUST X) and and XX’ what do we get (remember the kid has to get ONE copy from each parent): XX and XX’ - an omega or an enigma

NOOOOO I HAVE BEEN FOILED BABE CANT POSSIBLY BE A SINGLE COPY X MAN HE MUST HAVE SOMETHING COMPLETELY NEW??? So babes condition is something not X-linked but still affects his reproductive system????

wait no I might have been hasty so what if the ENIGMA’S specialty is that it’s X’ gives rise to a change of the chromatin duplication during meiosis so that it duplicates a second time (MEIOSIS 1.5!!!!) so NOW an alpha+ and an enigma (so Way and Babes ) baby will be XXX’ which is a super powered thing being never before seen until Tony’s ingenuity!!!

BUT THEN WHAT OF AN ENIGMA AND AN OMEGA??? OH MY GOD I HAVE BEEN FOILED AGAIN AN ENIGMA AND OMEGA WOULD ALSO HAVE AN XXX’ baby because an omega XX has the exact same genetic makeup as alpha+ and this will NOT EXPLAIN TONY’S OBSESSION WITH BABE

okay THIRD TRY SO BABE COMES FROM A Y CHROMOSOME VARIATION which must actually be the most rare because well I’m losing track of my meiosis phase so I must study this more. BUT NOW we have the possibility of a XY’ instead of XO

which means if enigmas are XX’ and alpha+ is XY’ and I take back the double duplication in enigmas we will get XX XY’ XX’ X’Y’ and omg THERE YOU HAVE IT:

Babe and Way have equal chances of producing an omega an enigma an alpha+ and a never before seen person

BABE AND WAY HAVE A 25% chance of having AN EXTREMELY SPECIAL CHILD - DO YOU THINK TONY WILL LIKE THESE ODDS????

#pit babe the series #pit babe bl #I AM SO SORRY

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arachnixe · 1 month

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Girl who thinks she's the hottest in the world. If you want to fuck her, you'll have to submit to a total chromosomal and mental makeover to make you an exact duplicate of her.

It's a grueling, agonizing process, but she promises you'll find everything worth it when she's done.

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pkmnprofloblolly · 1 year

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(@icetypelover) Hello, since biology is your thing I wanted to ask, how uncommon is a mutation where a Pokémon has two heads? I've seen it happen in Ekans and similar Pokémon rarely, but someone I know has a two-headed Houndoom, he was born with them. He's a gift from her father, back when he was a little Houndour pup, he's very well raised and gentle, though some fire can leak from his mouth when he's excited.

He's from a family of breeders who have been working with her father's family for generations where Houndoom are a Pokémon of choice, and they can't remember if it has ever happened before. The heads don't snap at each other and he's given a bit more food than a Houndoom his size would need since he has two brains, split in half so each head can eat, and he has no health issues.

I'm curious because there are two mythos I know, of Houndoom-like creatures with two and three heads, so it has to come from somewhere right? Since they're both represented as similar to Houndoom, does that mean it's maybe a mutation that can happen not so impossibly rare you wouldn't believe it in Houndoom?

wow, that's very fortunate that the fellow's gotten one just fine with two heads! extremely cool, what an exceptional lil guy, i'm glad the two get along.

polycephaly (literally "multiple headed") is a condition found all over the animal kingdom- including in humans!- and it isn't actually a mutation (with a notable exception we'll get to later). mutations specifically refer to changes in the genetic code- whether that's the flipping of a base pair, duplication of chromosomes, or so on- while polycephaly is actually a way that conjoined twinning can be expressed.

so, identical twins. identical (also called monozygotic) twins happen when a fertilized egg splits into two separate wholes at some point early in development- compare with "typical" development, where 1 egg + 1 sperm = 1 baby. identical twins happen when 1 egg + 1 sperm = 2 baby. compare with fraternal (or dizygotic) twins, which are formed from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm. identical twins share a genetic code while fraternal twins do not (like any other sort of sibling). identical twins aren't super uncommon, though their rate of occurrence changes depending on where in the world you go.

now, usually this separation of the zygote into 2 embryos is complete. rarely, though, this splitting happens particularly late and doesn't quite finish, resulting in the two twins being connected in some fashion. this can result in an organism with one body and two heads, such as in your houndoom example, but can express in tons of different ways- for example, you may be familiar with the term "siamese twins" for conjoined twins: this originates from a famous pair of conjoined human twins from 1800's siam, chang and eng bunker, who were joined around the chest. in other cases, twins can be fused at the back of the head, the abdomen, the back, and plenty of other configurations.

survivability of these conditions varies wildly. some are easily separated, some live fine while conjoined, some must be separated for either of the two to survive, and unfortunately some are unable to survive at all, dying soon after birth.

the last case is usually what happens with two-headed organisms (something something, twice as many stars), but obviously, there are exceptions. while rare, organisms (of any sort- it's most famous in reptiles as you mentioned, but mammals (including humans!) can obviously exhibit it too) can live with these conditions as well.

also worth noting- when two complete heads are present, two complete brains are present! they may share organs and sensation, but the brains do function independently- so it's good that in your example the two get along! two-headed examples of less social species will often be much more antagonistic towards one another, since the two heads can recognize their counterparts as potential competitors or aggressors. this can cause problems in wild pokemon, who may waste precious time and energy squabbling over who gets to eat something that's going to the same stomach anyways (assuming the individuals share a stomach- sometimes there are two), leaving them vulnerable to attack.

(you may be familiar with 12-string, a polycephalic seviper(s) owned by virbank gym leader roxie, who famously featured in some particularly intense PWT matches- two heads means two sets of venom glands, which means REALLY effective poison type attacks!)

this also raises the question of individuality- whether polycephalic organism(s) are considered one or two beings- and perspectives on this vary. some polycephalic twins consider themselves two separate people, while some consider themself one. in what way you consider polycephalic organisms without the ability to self-define in that way is up to you, really (which is to say, if a person with two heads considers themself one person, they are one person, and vice versa, but most nonhuman animals can't decide that for themselves and probably don't care how you refer to them).

now, uh, back to pokemon specifically, and those notable exceptions i mentioned. while polycephaly is exceptional in the vast majority of species, there are of course a few where having multiple heads is the norm: doduo/dodrio, deino/zweilous/hydreigon, and girafarig/farigiraf (there are a few others- like weezing or cherubi- but i'm talking about animals specifically here. also not to be confused with conglomerate pokemon like dugtrio or magneton, which are multiple separate individuals working as one). these instances are indeed genetically programmed.

the mechanism by which these pokemon develop their multiheadedness varies. doduo could be considered to be a conjoined twin- the zygote's partial split happens in much the same way, though enforced by genetics.

(this process can indeed lead to an inverse of polycephaly, in which the two heads of the doduo fail to separate while in development. while rare, this condition is rarely fatal, and dodrio evolving from single-headed doduo tend to be two-headed. note how the dodrio's heads are asymmetrical, with one middle and one left head.)

girafarig does not develop by partial fission- the anterior and posterior heads develop separately, just the same as you develop two of each limb, girafarig develops two heads.

in cases where a pokemon gains more heads as it evolves, such as in dodrio and zweilous, the process is somewhat similar to how it happens in embryos- the head essentially separates into two in the split-second process of instantaneous evolution, with new growth making up the material lost to each head (or in hyderigon's case, the middle head keeping all the brain). in doduo->dodrio and zweilous->hydreigon only one of the two heads separates: the right head in doduo, and the left in zweilous. you can see in the two-headed dodrio above that the singular "right" head split into the middle and right heads, leaving a "blank" space where the left head would be.

you also mentioned the various mythos surrounding multi-headed creatures- indeed, some think that mythological beasts like hades' hellish houndoom cerberus may have been inspired by real-life examples of polycephaly, though we don't know for sure. cases of polycephaly are indeed extremely rare, so it'd be entirely understandable for folks in ancient times to think they're some sort of legendary beast, and you can find records of conjoined twin animals labeled as miracles or similar in some medieval texts.

#art #pkmn #seviper #doduo #dodrio #note as said above polycephaly and other forms of conjoined twinning are real things that happen to real people and i want to handle it sen #sitively because of that. ive tried to but if anything ive said comes off as rude or callous do please call me on it #pkmn irl #pkmn rp

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science-lover33 · 8 months

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Exploring the Marvels of Biological Macromolecules: The Molecular Machinery of Life (Part 3)

Nucleotide Structure: The Building Blocks

Nucleotides, the monomers of nucleic acids, consist of three fundamental components:

1. Phosphate Group (PO4): Provides a negatively charged backbone for the nucleic acid strand.

2. Pentose Sugar: In DNA, it's deoxyribose; in RNA, it's ribose. The sugar moiety forms the framework of the nucleotide.

3. Nitrogenous Base: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) in DNA, and Uracil (U) in RNA. These bases are responsible for the genetic code.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The Repository of Genes

DNA is a double-stranded helical molecule, with each strand composed of a linear sequence of nucleotides. It encodes the genetic information necessary for an organism's development, growth, and functioning. The Watson-Crick base pairing rules—A with T and C with G

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The Repository of Genes

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): From DNA's Blueprint to Protein Synthesis

RNA plays diverse roles in the cell, including serving as a messenger (mRNA) for protein synthesis, a structural component of ribosomes (rRNA), and an adapter molecule (tRNA) that brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation. Unlike DNA, RNA is often single-stranded and contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).

Genome Organization and Chromosomes

Genomic DNA is organized into chromosomes within the cell nucleus. These structures enable efficient storage, replication, and transmission of genetic information during cell division and reproduction.

Replication and Transcription

DNA replication ensures the faithful duplication of genetic material during cell division, while transcription converts DNA into RNA, providing a template for protein synthesis.

Translation

The cellular machinery, composed of ribosomes and tRNA, reads the mRNA code and assembles amino acids into polypeptides during translation, ultimately forming functional proteins.

Genetic Code

The genetic code, a triplet code of nucleotide sequences (codons), dictates a protein's sequence of amino acids. It is nearly universal, with only minor variations across species.

Epigenetics

Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence, pivotal in development and cell differentiation.

Macromolecular interactions are the essence of cellular life. Within the complex microcosm of a cell, countless molecules engage in precise and choreographed dances, forming intricate networks that govern every facet of biology. These interactions, governed by the principles of biochemistry, are the foundation upon which life's processes are built.

Amino Acids: The Building Blocks

Proteins are composed of amino acids organic molecules that contain an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a distinctive side chain (R group). There are 20 different amino acids, each with a unique side chain that confers specific properties to the amino acid.

Primary Structure: Amino Acid Sequence

The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. The genetic information in DNA encodes the precise arrangement of amino acids.

Secondary Structure: Folding Patterns

Proteins don't remain linear; they fold into specific three-dimensional shapes. Secondary structures, such as α-helices and β-sheets, result from hydrogen bonding between nearby amino acids along the polypeptide chain.

Tertiary Structure: Spatial Arrangement

The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional shape of a protein, determined by interactions between amino acid side chains. These interactions include hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.

Quaternary Structure: Multiple Polypeptide Chains

Some proteins, known as quaternary structures, comprise multiple polypeptide chains. These subunits come together to form a functional protein complex. Hemoglobin, with its four subunits, is an example.

Protein Functions: Diverse and Essential

Proteins are involved in an astounding array of functions:

1. Enzymes: Proteins catalyze chemical reactions, increasing the speed at which reactions occur.

2. Structural Proteins: Proteins like collagen provide structural support to tissues and cells.

3. Transport Proteins: Hemoglobin transports oxygen in red blood cells, and membrane transport proteins move molecules across cell membranes.

4. Hormones: Hormonal proteins, such as insulin, regulate various physiological processes.

5. Immune Function: Antibodies are proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system's defense against pathogens.

6. Signaling: Proteins are critical in cell signaling pathways, transmitting information within cells.

Protein Denaturation and Folding

Protein Diversity: The vast diversity of proteins arises from the combinatorial possibilities of amino acid sequences, secondary structure arrangements, and three-dimensional conformations.

Nucleic acids, the remarkable macromolecules that govern all living organisms' genetic information, are life's quintessential molecules. These complex polymers of nucleotides play an unparalleled role in the storage, replication, and expression of genetic information, shaping the development, characteristics, and functions of every living entity on Earth. Let's embark on an exploration of the intricate world of nucleic acids.

Nucleotide Structure: The Building Blocks

Nucleotides, the monomers of nucleic acids, consist of three fundamental components:

1. Phosphate Group (PO4): Provides a negatively charged backbone for the nucleic acid strand.

2. Pentose Sugar: In DNA, it's deoxyribose; in RNA, it's ribose. The sugar moiety forms the framework of the nucleotide.

3. Nitrogenous Base: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) in DNA, and Uracil (U) in RNA. These bases are responsible for the genetic code.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The Repository of Genes

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): From DNA's Blueprint to Protein Synthesis

Genome Organization and Chromosomes:

Replication and Transcription: DNA replication ensures the faithful duplication of genetic material during cell division, while transcription converts DNA into RNA, providing a template for protein synthesis.

Translation: The cellular machinery, composed of ribosomes and tRNA, reads the mRNA code and assembles amino acids into polypeptides during translation, ultimately forming functional proteins.

Genetic Code: The genetic code, a triplet code of nucleotide sequences (codons), dictates the sequence of amino acids in a protein. It is nearly universal, with only minor variations across species.

Epigenetics: Epigenetic modifications, such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, regulate gene expression without altering the underlying DNA sequence, pivotal in development and cell differentiation.

#science #biology #college #education #school #student #medicine #doctors #health #healthcare #genetics #genetic engineering #science nerds #dna activation #new dna

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lesbian-time-traveler · 3 months

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So you know how transphobes are always like “but chromosomes!” To deny trans people’s existence? I’m taking AP Bio right now and that argument has ZERO basis in science and here is why:

1. Chromosomes are highly compacted DNA that only look like an X and a Y WHEN THEY ARE BEING DUPLICATED. The DNA in chromosomes is too compacted to be used in that state. Chromosomes are sort of like suit cases, you put your clothes in their for ease is travel but it’s too inconvenient to actually get your clothes from there and a regular basis. So, the rest of the time they are just loose chromatins laying around waiting for their genetic information to be used.

So the concept of like “oh chromosomes define your gender” isn’t even based in reality when DNA isn’t even in chromosome form half the time lol

2. Ok so the transphobes are scrambling now. “BUT what about the DNA, that clearly defines gender”. Let’s set aside that gender is a social construct for a second. Yes, DNA does define sex. It also defines hair color, hair texture, eye color, freckles, wether or not you have a hairy liver, cancer, adhd, you get the point. DNA includes the instructions to literally EVERYTHING in your body. If you are going to say trans people are “breaking biology”, than I want you to criticizing perms, fake freckles, contact lenses, adhd medication, plastic surgery, GMO’s, insulin all the other products we use to alter our “biology” to make us life a happier more confortable life. Trans people getting surgery and hormones are literally no different than any of this other stuff. Yet I don’t see any effort by politicians to get rid of any information about plastic surgery, and perms in schools? I don’t see millions of clinics and hair salons being shut down by the government? I don’t see people with henna freckles getting hate crimed on the streets.

Because transphobia isn’t about biology. This is about maintaining the patriarchy by controlling trans peoples bodies and identity.

Yours truly,

Non-binary vintage lesbian

(Ps. Feel free to share on other platforms, and to copy and paste this argument literally anywhere. I’m so sick of the transphobes. )

#transgender #transphobes #open letter #psa #science #biology #lgbtqia #transphobia #rant post #lgbtq #nonbinary

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intersex-support · 1 year

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The genetics behind intersex variations, mine (CAIS) in particular is a special interest of mine because I’m autistic, and I’ve been thinking. In theory it would be possible for someone with XX chromosomes to have AIS. It’s exceedingly unlikely of course, and it could only happen if there was a mutation in the androgen receptor on both X chromosomes. If someone inherited one mutation from their mom and had a de novo mutation on the x inherited by their dad, or had two separate de novo mutations on their X chromosomes, they would have a form of AIS. It probably wouldn’t be recognized unless say they were a trans man, and they’d develop perisex, but certain things like little body hair, dry skin and little body odour would be in common with regular CAIS. A similar situation could probably also happen with Turners syndrome as well, if someone with Turner’s had an AR mutation on their X chromosome they’d have AIS. The probability of these would be really low and the probability they’d be diagnosed probably even lower, but I think it’s cool to think about. Interestingly, there has been a case of someone with Klinefelter’s syndrome with X chromosome duplication who also had CAIS.

So interesting!!! thanks for sharing.

#intersex #cais #genetics

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er-cryptid · 7 months

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Mitosis Stages

-- has four phases

Prophase -- duplicated chromosomes coil up -- nucleus and nucleolus disappear -- spindle apparatus is completed -- chromosomes go to the center of the cell

Metaphase -- centromeres line up on the metaphase plate

Anaphase -- centromeres split -- chromatids move to opposite spindle poles

Telophase -- chromosomes uncoil -- nucleus and nucleoli form -- spindle apparatus is undone -- cytokinesis is complete

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blorbologist · 1 year

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If a child inherits 50% of their dna from their parents, and their sibling also inherits 50%, the siblings share 50% with each other. But if, for example, one child’s ancestry results are different from their sibling’s, what happens to the non inherited ethnicites(?)? Like, if one parent is mixed race and the other is full, I know the children receive a randomized half of each, but what happens to the rest? Is it passed down or is it in the junk dna? I took a test with my sib and I’m confused :/

Hi anon!

Before we start, I'll clarify that my speciality is animal behavior, ecology and evolution, with some neurobio thrown into the mix - so any geneticists are free to correct me if I stumbled on any of this!

Walk with me, here:

You get 50% of your DNA from one parent, and 50% from the other. Right? Pretty standard. What DNA this is will vary wildly, because you're only getting one of any two alleles each parent has. During Meiosis, your parent's chromosomes are duplicated, mix things up a little, randomly* assort, and split to form gametes with half of that parent's alleles. Due to the sheer numbers at play, roughly half* of the DNA in each gamete will end up being the same (so 25% the same from the sire, 25% the same from the dam). But the gist of it is you'll end up with a roughly 50% overlap with what your sibling got... but half their DNA is different, remember.

For instance, I have blue eyes and my brother's are brown. Due to our knowledge of our family tree, we know this is due to a coinflip with our dad's eye color alleles - he got that blue allele from his blue-eyed father, and the brown allele from his mother. Which means I have one of my grandfather's blue eye alleles, but not my grandmother's.

Does that mean I have less of my grandmother's DNA? No! The eye color gene is just one of many, many, many, and a more obvious visible marker than a mutation midway through some random protein that doesn't give me lovely baby blues. Iirc my blood type is more in line with hers, but I'd need to check.

Where am I going with this?

Well, the way a DNA test decides who you're related is by zeroing in on very specific genes that are commonly found in X populations. It's not a 100% match, because humans migrate and mingle a lot, but it offers an educated guess based on probabilities. It's looking for the obvious blue vs brown eyes in your DNA, so to speak.

DNA tests are not looking at *all* your DNA, just at specific areas with known associations. You both likely have roughly the same total % of DNA from those ancestors, it’s just that some of the many coinflips didn't favor keeping those genetic markers used to identify these ethnicities in simple tests. You and your sibling likely each carry a host of traits from those same ancestors that aren't simple brown/blue markers, so to speak. Maybe your sibling inherited an allele commonly seen in X population, but you’re the lucky one who got the toenail shape or what have you.

However, if you don't have that specific allele, it's gone for good. My dad's brown eye allele he got from his mother is not hiding in my back pocket, or in another patch of DNA. It was not included in that original gamete, so I just... flat out do not have it. It ended up in some other sperm cell that didn't get quite so lucky. Likewise, if you don't have X genetic markers, you just don't have them. There have been generations of these coinflips, on top of chromosomal crossover events, and it just so happens that these markers stuck around until this generation - it's luck they made it far enough to be in your parent! There's still ample DNA in you from that ancestor, just less obviously linked to that branch of your family tree.

TLDR: you likely inherited more than what the test is telling you, because it's just looking at obvious makers associated with those populations. However, what markers you didn’t get you flat out do not have (because they ended up in different gametes).

I hope that was a bit of help anon! <3

Also obligatory disclaimer, DNA ancestry tests can and will sell your genetic data to anyone on the market, including informing insurance companies of predispositions to certain illnesses among other things. I recommend people keep their genetic info under lock and key so it does not get used against you or your relatives. Said brown-eyed brother o mine did a test before we knew how shady these companies are, so the best I can hope for is that our overlapping 50% doesn't include anything they'd care to hold against me 🙃

Anon, maybe check the TOS of the service you used and see if you can opt out? I'm not optimistic but you never know! ;; Just be careful going forward. It's not the end of the world, but it might bite you and your parents in the butt going forward.

*The DNA you get from each parent is not completely random, because some alleles are linked due to being very close on the chromosome and thus less likely to be swapped around. Plus some recessive combinations might be nonviable and so those gametes never end up producing viable zygotes. And sex-linked genes. It's fun :D

#ask #biology #genetics are weird #though not really weird this is pretty standard stuff #I think this is my first biology-related ask? glad I graduated beyond CR asks! yall ask me about dinosaurs or social behavior next :DDD

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