Skeletal System Orthopedics Abbreviations
AKA = above the knee amputation
anti-CCP = anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide
AP = anteroposterior
BKA = below the knee amputation
BMD = bone mineral density
C1 = cervical vertebra 1
C2 = cervical vertebra 2
C3 = cervical vertebra 3
C4 = cervical vertebra 4
C5 = cervical vertebra 5
C6 = cervical vertebra 6
C7 = cervical vertebra 7
Ca = calcium
Ca²⁺ = calcium ion
CDH = congenital dislocation of the hip
DEXA = dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry
DXA = dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry
DIP = distal interphalangeal joint
DJD = degenerative joint disease
ESWT = extracorporeal shock wave therapy
Fx = fracture
L1 = lumbar vertebra 1
L2 = lumbar vertebra 2
L3 = lumbar vertebra 3
L4 = lumbar vertebra 4
L5 = lumbar vertebra 5
LLE = left lower extremity
LUE = left upper extremity
MCP = metacarpophalangeal joint
NSAID = nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
OA = osteoarthritis
ORIF = open reduction and internal fixation
ortho = orthopedics
P = phosphorus
PIP = proximal interphalangeal joint
PT = physical therapy
QCT = quantitative computerized tomography
RA = rheumatoid arthritis
RF = rheumatoid factor
RLE = right lower extremity
ROM = range of motion
RUE = right upper extremity
S1 = first sacral vertebra
T1 = thoracic vertebra 1
T2 = thoracic vertebra 2
T3 = thoracic vertebra 3
T4 = thoracic vertebra 4
T5 = thoracic vertebra 5
T6 = thoracic vertebra 6
T7 = thoracic vertebra 7
T8 = thoracic vertebra 8
T9 = thoracic vertebra 9
T10 = thoracic vertebra 10
T11 = thoracic vertebra 11
T12 = thoracic vertebra 12
THR = total hip replacement
tib-fib = tibia-fibula
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A huge ancient city has been found in the Amazon, hidden for thousands of years by lush vegetation.
The discovery changes what we know about the history of people living in the Amazon.
The houses and plazas in the Upano area in eastern Ecuador were connected by an astounding network of roads and canals.
The area lies in the shadow of a volcano that created rich local soils but also may have led to the destruction of the society.
While we knew about cities in the highlands of South America, like Machu Picchu in Peru, it was believed that people only lived nomadically or in tiny settlements in the Amazon.
"This is older than any other site we know in the Amazon. We have a Eurocentric view of civilisation, but this shows we have to change our idea about what is culture and civilisation," says Prof Stephen Rostain, director of investigation at the National Centre for Scientific Research in France, who led the research.
"It changes the way we see Amazonian cultures. Most people picture small groups, probably naked, living in huts and clearing land - this shows ancient people lived in complicated urban societies," says co-author Antoine Dorison.
The city was built around 2,500 years ago, and people lived there for up to 1,000 years, according to archaeologists.
It is difficult to accurately estimate how many people lived there at any one time, but scientists say it is certainly in the 10,000s if not 100,000s.
The archaeologists combined ground excavations with a survey of a 300 sq km (116 sq mile) area using laser sensors flown on a plane that could identify remains of the city beneath the dense plants and trees.
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"The road network is very sophisticated. It extends over a vast distance, everything is connected. And there are right angles, which is very impressive," he says, explaining that it is much harder to build a straight road than one that fits in with the landscape.
The scientists also identified causeways with ditches on either side which they believe were canals that helped manage the abundant water in the region.
There were signs of threats to the cities - some ditches blocked entrances to the settlements, and may be evidence of threats from nearby people.
Researchers first found evidence of a city in the 1970s, but this is the first time a comprehensive survey has been completed, after 25 years of research.
It reveals a large, complex society that appears to be even bigger than the well-known Mayan societies in Mexico and Central America.
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Some of the findings are "unique" for South America, he explains, pointing to the octagonal and rectangular platforms arranged together.
The societies were clearly well-organised and interconnected, he says, highlighting the long sunken roads between settlements.
Not a huge amount is known about the people who lived there and what their societies were like.
Pits and hearths were found in the platforms, as well as jars, stones to grind plants and burnt seeds.
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Prof Rostain says he was warned against this research at the start of his career because scientists believed no ancient groups had lived in the Amazon.
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Routes of Administration Latin Words
Inhalation
-- inhalation = drawing air into lungs
Intramuscular
-- intra = into
-- muscularis = of the muscles
Intraosseous
-- intra = into
-- osse = bond
Intravenous
-- intra = into
-- venosus = of the veins
Per Os
-- per = by
-- os = mouth
Per Rectum
-- per = by
-- rectum = rectum
Subcutaneous
-- sub = under
-- cutis = skin
Sublingual
-- sub = under
-- lingua = tongue
Transcutaneous
-- trans = through
-- cutis = skin
Intranasal
-- intra = into
-- nasal = nose
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avatrice + circle
Beatrice notices it early on in Switzerland, the way Ava circles her in a decaying orbit. She's well aware that, if left unchecked, collision is inevitable. That Ava, caught in her gravity well, will do everything she can to burn bright and fast rather than fade away.
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