#Thessalian government

[demeteraltar]

Learning Epithets 2 - Demeter Amphictyonis

Hello all! I’m back again with another epithet. This time, we are learning Demeter Amphictyonis. As always, feel free to skip the first part and go straight to the epithet meaning if you don’t want to read how I studied and found the answers!

As listed on Theoi.com, Demeter Amphictyonis is described as:

derived from Anthela, where she was worshipped under this name, because it was the place of meeting for the amphictyons of Thermopylae, and because sacrifices were offered to her at the opening of every meeting

The Research:

As usual, I did not know any of the names, so I did some digging. I knew Thermopylae and Anthela were places, so I started there.

Anthela was a city state located in Thessaly (Thessalia). Thessaly is a region of Greece, located below Macedonia, next to Epirus, and above Central Greece, with the Aegean Sea to the east. Mount Olympus is actually located in Thessaly! The hero Jason is also from Thessaly, and him and the Argonauts started their search for the Golden Fleece by leaving off the Magnesia Peninsula. And if you know any history, you’ll know the Persians invaded Greece, and they invaded Thessaly in 480 BC.

Thermopylae is another city that is very important to history. This is, of course, where the Battle of Thermopylae took place between the Greeks (namely Spartans, Thebans, and Thesbians) and the Persians. Thermopylae is also known for their hot springs, of which it was named, and the hot gates are considered an entrance into Hades.

Okay, so we familiarized ourselves with some of the places, but what are amphictyons? An amphictyony is a group of tribes that formed a religious, cultural, and political center. There were several leagues, but the one we will be discussing is the Great Amphictyonic League or the Delphic Amphictyony.

The Delphic Amphictyony were made up of the Aenianes/Oetaeans, the Boeotians, the Dolopes, the Dorians, the Ionians, the Phthian Achaeans, the Locrians, the Magnesians, the Malians, the Perrhaebians, the Phocians, the Pythians of Delphi, and the Thessalians. Formed after the Trojan war by Amphictyon, the League was tasked with protecting the Temple of Apollo in Delphi and the Temple of Demeter in Anthela. This league was the military defender of the cult of Delphi.

The league became super politically important. They had the power to protect its temples through punishment, including fines and even banishment, to actually starting wars. There were a set of rules about war, including not cutting off water or completely abolishing any member. Fighting over dominance of the temples was allowed though. They also organized religious festivals and the Pythian Games, celebrated in honor of Apollo at Delphi.

The league participated in a series of wars called the Sacred Wars. The First Sacred War last from 595 to 585, and was fought between the Amphictyonic League and the city of Kirrha. Kirrha was the harbor of Delphi that had been mistreating people going to and coming from Delphi. The city was defeated by the Amphictyonic League and the plains were dedicated to Apollo, Leto, and Artemis. This also marked the start of the first Pythian Games.

The Second Sacred War was between the Spartans and Athenian-backed Phocians around 440 BC. The Spartans defeated the Phocians and restored self-government at Delphi.

The Third Sacred War started in 356 BC, when the Phocians seized the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. In 346 BC, the Phocians lost the war and were cast out of the League, their votes being given to Macedonia, and resulting in the domination of Macedonia over Greece after the Fourth Sacred War.

Myth proclaims the founder of the league to be Amphictyon, who was King of Thermopylae and later ruled over Athens. He is stated to be the brother or son of Hellen, the common ancestor of all Greeks.

Well-known members include Plutarch, who worked as a manager and oversaw the Pythian Games from 107 to 127 and also served as a priest for Apollo at the Temple of Delphi. Another is Aeschines, which I encourage you all to research because his story is INSANE, but he served as an Athenian deputy.

Though the league has no official end date, it is considered over around the 2nd century, under Roman rule. It was replaced by the Panhellenion, a religious league of city states set up by Emperor Hadrian to recreate Ancient Greece when it was fighting the Persians. Hadrian was a philhellene, which meant he was fond of Greek culture and history.

The Epithet:

The Temple of Demeter Amphictyonis was an extra-urban (located far away from big city populations) sanctuary in Anthela, Thessaly and served as the center for the Amphictynoic League, where they met each spring. As Herodotus says:

“Further to the south, another river, called the Phoenix, which has no great body of water, flows from the same hills, and falls into the Asopus. Here is the narrowest place of all; for in this part there is only a causeway wide enough for a single carriage. From the river Phoenix to Thermopylae is a distance of fifteen furlongs; and in this space is situate the village called Anthela, which the river Asopus passes ere it reaches the sea. The space about Anthela is of some width, and contains a temple of Amphictyonian Demeter, as well as the seats of the Amphictyonic deputies, and a temple of Amphictyon himself.” Herodotus, Histories 7. 200

As we can see, this was an extremely important cult center to the Greeks! The Amphictyonic League had a lot of political and religious power. The league made sacrifices to Lady Demeter at the start of meetings, although I have not yet been able to find what kind (even trying to research on the databases allowed to me through college has not found any sources). If anybody could point me in the direction of more information, I will be so glad to update this and credit you!

That being said, what we do know is that Demeter Amphictyonis is a goddess of wine and friendship between nations. She had her likeness printed on a silver stater with a veil and wreath of grain, and Apollo was depicted on the reverse side, inscribed with the word AMΦΙΚΤΥΩΝΩΝ (of the Amphictyons).

Unfortunately, the temple has since been destroyed. It is believed to have no longer been in use around 4th century AD because of the persecution of pagans by Christians. What remains is being studied by archaeologists.

How to Worship:

How you can worship this epithet is similar to the first one in this series - if you’re in the region, want to pay homage to the region/history, or however you want to use the epithet in your practice. Personally, seeing as it is a very important epithet relating to a very politically powerful temple, I think it is an epithet that isn’t to be used lightly. On the other hand, Demeter Amphictyonis is a goddess of wine and merriment, so if you’re having an important event or really need to rock a dinner interview, you could ask her for help.

I think a great take away from this epithet lesson is that there is so much we just don’t really know about ancient history. So much information here is not available either because a) it is not available for free or b) it’s just not researched enough. I would make assumptions, but it is dangerous to do that when I’m not a qualified historian, and I don’t want to spread misinformation like that, so I only reported on what I do know from multiple sources.

Another take away is that there is so much to learn about Ancient Greece. Even just researching this, I learned so much more about history that I want to continue to explore! The betrayal of the Phocians? The Battle of Thermopylae? Even just researching this epithet has really shown me how little I actually know and how much is still waiting for me to see and understand.

If you guys would like me to do a series on Greek history, let me know! There is a TON of related history of the amphictyonic league, so I am more than happy to explore that with you! For now, please look forward to the next epithet for Lady Demeter!

SOURCES

The Histories - Herodotus

The Phocian Betrayal at Thermopylae

Wikipedia: Aeschines

Wikipedia: Amphictyonic league

Wikipedia: Amphictyonis

Wikipedia: Ancient Thessaly

Wikipedia: Anthela (Thessaly)

Wikipedia: Mount Olympus

Wikipedia: Plutarch

Wikipedia: Temple of Demeter Amphictyonis

Wikipedia: Thessaly

Wikipedia: Thermopylae

Wikipedia: Third Sacred War

#demeter #pagan #demeter worship #hellenism #pagan help #hellenic pagan #hellenic gods #hellenic polytheism #hellenic polythiest #demeter amphictyonis #epithets #history #greek goddesses #greek gods #paganblr #paganism

[classicschronicles]

Hi lovelies,

Okay so I am in Greece at the moment, which is so so so so cool because I’ve wanted to come since I was like five. But it was a last minute trip (literally we booked it 24 hours before the flight) and so I know literally nothing about where I am staying. It’s a very cool city called Thessaloniki and has some pretty dope connections to the ancient world, which I thought we could explore together.

The history of Thessaloniki dates back to ancient Macedonia and was a town founded around 315 BC by King Cassander of Macedon. Cassender named the new city after his wife Thessalonike (the half sister of Alexander the Great). Some cool etymology about her name is that it means Victory of the Thessalians (i.e. Thessaly and also form the Greek goddess of victory ‘Nike’). Her name commemorated her being born on the day her father (Phillip II) won a battle with the hero of horsemen from Thessaly. Thessaloniki developed rapidly and by as early as the 2nd century BC it began to build walls which enclosed the city. The city also become a self governing state in the Macedonian Kingdom.

After the fall of the Kingdom of Macedon, Thessaloniki (as the Latin name for it is) became part of the Roman Empire, and became a very important trade hub which connected Byzantium and Dyrrhachium (basically Constantinople and Albania) and facilitated trade between europe and Asia. The city became the capital one of the four roman districts of Macedonia and although it kept its sovereign privileges it did have a praetor overseeing it.

In the 1st century AD, Thessaloniki had a thriving jewish community. Later on, the apostle Paul was sent to preach in the Jewish synagogue and establish and Christian church and write two letter to the Christian community of the city. These became known as the Epistles and Thessalonians.

Modern day Thessaloniki has a very very cool Archaeological Museum which holds and interprets artefacts from the Prehistoric, Archaic, Classical and roman periods from all over Macedonia. I’m literally here for three days but I already don’t want to leave, and I would recommend coming if you ever get the chance. I hope you all have a lovely weekend :)

~Z

#classical studies #classics #dark acamedia #greek mythology #ancient rome #roman mythology #ancient greece #ancient world #history #hellenic deities #thessaloniki #greece #macedonia #ancient history #greek history #tourisim

[gemsofgreece]

Hello! Forgive the rather specific request, but do you have a brief recap of the wars Greece fought in modern days? By modern days I mean after guns were invented up to the XX century, excluded (I mean you don't have to mention me WW1 and WW2, as I guess they are already a given). I know for a long time Greece was under the Ottoman empire, so I take that as well

Greece hasn't really fought with others much except Turkey tho lol, the list below will give you a deeper understanding of all the Greco-turkish memes

Guns were used in what we'd call their recognisable form around 1300 AD. For the next 200 years, the Greek fights are still the Byzantine fights.

In the 14th Century, the Byzantine Empire tries to resurrect itself as a result of its utter destruction from the Crusaders. This leads to Byzantine civil wars between aspiring emperors who simultaneously try to regain lands. Meanwhile, the empire fights the Ottomans on numerous battles. Throw in this mix a Byzantine-Genoese War, which had to do with the repercussions of the Crusades.

In the 15th Century, it's all Byzantine Empire vs Ottomans. The empire falls and Greeks become a part of the Ottoman empire.

In the Ottoman-Venetian Wars which span three centuries (1463 - 1718), Greeks participate on the side of the Venetians every time.

During the 16th century, Greeks make several anti-Ottoman revolts, at Vonitsa, Epirus, Thessaly and Dionysius the Philosopher's revolt. They also participate in the Albanian revolt in Himara.

In the Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774), Greeks participate on the side of the Russians.

From 1778-1815, Greeks make several revolts with local success which leads to re-invasions from the Ottoman Turks and more fights.

1821-1832, Greek War of Independence.

Crimean War, 1853 - 1856. Russia VS Ottoman Empire, France and UK. Greeks participate on the side of the Russians.

Further Cretan, Macedonian, Thessalian and Epirote revolts against the Ottoman Empire, 1841 - 1898.

Macedonian Struggle, 1904 - 1908. Atypical war between Greece and Bulgaria over the still Ottoman-controlled region of Macedonia.

First Balkan War, 1912-1913. Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria VS Ottoman Empire.

Second Balkan War, 1913. Greece and Serbia VS Bulgaria.

WWI (1914-1918). Greece joins the Allies after a lot of drama.

Greeks participate in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War (1918-1920).

Greco-Turkish War, 1919-1922.

WWII, 1939-1945. Greece is of course on the side of the Allies and fights the invasions of Italy, Germany and Bulgaria, for the most part simultaneously.

Greek Civil War, 1946 - 1949.

Korean War, 1950 - 1953. Greeks participate on the side of South Korea. Fun fact, they were the fifth largest UN power participating in the war.

Korean stamp.

Turkish Invasion of Cyprus, 1974. Much weaker and shorter assistance of Cyprus than one would expect, most likely because at the time Greece was governed by a dictatorship.

Now as a member of NATO and UN it is in several expenditions worldwide, missions, but it's basically peacemaking and humanitarian operations etc

#greece #history #wwii #wwi #balkan wars #greek history #gwensparlour #ask

[attichoney4u]

Inspired from @allbeendonebefore' s universe, let me introduce you to Larissa, a major Thessalian city, and Tempe, a small village near Larissa.

They are referring to the train crash that happened on the early hours of March, where two trains, one carrying passengers the other carrying goods, collided near Tempe. The collision resulted in the death of 43 individuals and the injury of 86 individuals thus far, and it was the result of the Greek government's weak handling of the situation.

It's frustrating considering that experts always warned that an accident like this could happen eventually, yet the government never listened. And also, that the majority of passengers were university students returning to their families after having a blast in Patras, where they celebrated a carnival festival for the first time in 4 years.

Larissa's "You are not cursed, Tempe" refers to the instant reaction of some people claiming that the reason behind the crash lied on Tempe's curse. Which has nothing to do with anything! It was all the government's fault and these young people would enjoy a pleasant time with their loved ones now!

Let's hope an accident like this won't happen in the near future! 🙏

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/greece-train-crash/&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwj8lIP-nb39AhVeYPEDHT3UCEEQFnoECAsQDQ&usg=AOvVaw2SOU4HJftY9KNraH-sDz90

https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/02/28/greece-train-accident-tempe-larissa/&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwj8lIP-nb39AhVeYPEDHT3UCEEQFnoECAgQAg&usg=AOvVaw2V3bNCHRK_CYkN_9yy_Qi6

#greece #train crash #larissa #tempe #aph larissa #aph tempe #hws larissa #hws tempe

[spectaculardistractions]

The foundation of this town, evidently meant to annoy Euboea (the passage across to Cenaeum in that island being a short one), at first caused some alarm at Athens, which the event however did nothing to justify, the town never giving them any trouble. The reason of this was as follows. The Thessalians, who were sovereign in those parts, and whose territory was menaced by its foundation, were afraid that it might prove a very powerful neighbour, and accordingly continually harassed and made war upon the new settlers, until they at last wore them out in spite of their originally considerable numbers, people flocking from all quarters to a place founded by the Lacedaemonians, and thus thought secure of prosperity. On the other hand the Lacedaemonians themselves, in the persons of their governors, did their full share towards ruining its prosperity and reducing its population, as they frightened away the greater part of the inhabitants by governing harshly and in some cases not fairly, and thus made it easier for their neighbours to prevail against them.

Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War

#thucydides #history of the peloponnesian war

[drcpanda12]

Welcome to "Horses of Heroes", a blog dedicated to exploring the incredible bond between humans and their equine companions. Throughout history, horses have played a vital role in human society, serving as transportation, companions, and even warriors in times of conflict. This blog is particularly focused on the relationship between horses and heroes, highlighting the horses that have played important roles in the lives of legendary figures such as Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Joan of Arc, and many more. We'll also examine the ways in which horses have been depicted in art, literature, and popular culture, and the impact they continue to have on our society today. Whether you're a seasoned equestrian or simply fascinated by the enduring connection between humans and horses, "Horses of Heroes" is the perfect place to dive deep into the world of equine history and culture. Join us on this journey as we explore the incredible stories of these magnificent animals and the heroes they have accompanied throughout history. Bucephalus - owned by Alexander the Great A famous horse of classical history, Bucephalus was the mount of Alexander the Great. The term "Bucephalus" comes from a branding mark that shows the head of an ox on his hindquarters. Bucephalus is characterized as a huge beast with a huge head, a black coat, and a great white star on his brow. He was bred from the "greatest Thessalian strain," and he is said to have had a blue eye as well. Bucephalus was made available to King Philip II by a horse trader named Philonicus the Thessalian against a high price. Philip father of Alexander had no interest in trying to tame the beast because no one could. Given the chance, Alexander stunned everyone by controlling it. The horse's anguish had been brought on by its ability to perceive its own shadow, so he comforted it and turned it toward the direction of the sun. Alexander managed to control the horse by letting go of his flapping cloak as well. Sources claim that Bucephalus passed away at the age of thirty. However, other versions attribute the death to fatal wounds sustained during the Battle of the Hydaspes (June 326 BC), where Alexander's forces defeated King Porus, rather than old age or exhaustion. Alexander created the city of Bucephala in honor of his steed. It was situated on the western bank of river Jhelum in Pakistan. Bucephalus is supposedly interred outside of Jhelum in the contemporary town of Jalalpur Sharif. Chetak - The Horse of Maharana Pratap The horse that Maharana Pratap rode in the Battle of Haldighati, fought on June 18, 1576, in Haldighati in the Aravalli Mountains of Rajasthan, western India, was known in traditional literature as Chetak. Chetak took Pratap safely away from the battle despite being injured, but he later passed away from his wounds. For centuries, Chetak is still living in the folklore of India. Incitatus - owned by Caligula Incitatus was a horse owned by the Roman Emperor Caligula. Although it is obvious from ancient records that this did not happen, Caligula had intended to appoint the horse as a consul. The poem "Caligula" by Zbigniew Herbert is about Incitatus' life. According to Robert Graves' I, Claudius, Incitatus was appointed a senator and placed on the list to become a consul. Later, Claudius removed Incitatus' government stipend and his status as senator because he didn't meet the necessary financial requirements. Later, Incitatus was killed after breaking his leg during a race. Marengo - owned by Napoleon Bonaparte Marengo was a grey Arabian stallion owned by Napoleon Bonaparte. The horse was named after the Battle of Marengo, which was one of Napoleon's greatest victories. Marengo was said to be a fearless and loyal mount, carrying Napoleon into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon's defeat, Marengo was captured by the British but was eventually returned to France, where he lived out the rest of his days. In his career, Marengo suffered eight wounds.

He fought for the Emperor in the battles of Austerlitz, Jena-Auerstedt, Wagram, and Waterloo. He was also commonly utilized for the 80-mile runs from Valladolid to Burgos, which he frequently finished in five hours. Napoleon I of France's renowned military horse was named Marengo and lived from roughly 1793 to 1831. After the Battle of Abukir in 1799, when he was six years old, he was imported to France from Egypt and given the name Marengo after the battle in which he successfully carried his rider. Marengo is an Arabian breed that most likely originated at the renowned El Naseri stud. Copenhagen - owned by King George III Copenhagen was a thoroughbred owned by King George III of England. He was known for his speed and strength, and he carried George III into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. During the battle, Copenhagen was injured, but he continued to carry the king until the end. After the battle, Copenhagen retired from active service and lived out the rest of his days in the royal stables. Copenhagen was of mixed Thoroughbred and Arabian ancestry. The name Copenhagen, which honors the British victory at the Second Battle of Copenhagen, was given to the foal in 1808. After the battle, the Duke kept riding Copenhagen in parades and other formal occasions. The horse was retired to the Duke's Stratfield Saye House and spent the remainder of his long life there as a pensioner.

[knewtoday]

Welcome to "Horses of Heroes", a blog dedicated to exploring the incredible bond between humans and their equine companions. Throughout history, horses have played a vital role in human society, serving as transportation, companions, and even warriors in times of conflict. This blog is particularly focused on the relationship between horses and heroes, highlighting the horses that have played important roles in the lives of legendary figures such as Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Joan of Arc, and many more. We'll also examine the ways in which horses have been depicted in art, literature, and popular culture, and the impact they continue to have on our society today. Whether you're a seasoned equestrian or simply fascinated by the enduring connection between humans and horses, "Horses of Heroes" is the perfect place to dive deep into the world of equine history and culture. Join us on this journey as we explore the incredible stories of these magnificent animals and the heroes they have accompanied throughout history. Bucephalus - owned by Alexander the Great A famous horse of classical history, Bucephalus was the mount of Alexander the Great. The term "Bucephalus" comes from a branding mark that shows the head of an ox on his hindquarters. Bucephalus is characterized as a huge beast with a huge head, a black coat, and a great white star on his brow. He was bred from the "greatest Thessalian strain," and he is said to have had a blue eye as well. Bucephalus was made available to King Philip II by a horse trader named Philonicus the Thessalian against a high price. Philip father of Alexander had no interest in trying to tame the beast because no one could. Given the chance, Alexander stunned everyone by controlling it. The horse's anguish had been brought on by its ability to perceive its own shadow, so he comforted it and turned it toward the direction of the sun. Alexander managed to control the horse by letting go of his flapping cloak as well. Sources claim that Bucephalus passed away at the age of thirty. However, other versions attribute the death to fatal wounds sustained during the Battle of the Hydaspes (June 326 BC), where Alexander's forces defeated King Porus, rather than old age or exhaustion. Alexander created the city of Bucephala in honor of his steed. It was situated on the western bank of river Jhelum in Pakistan. Bucephalus is supposedly interred outside of Jhelum in the contemporary town of Jalalpur Sharif. Chetak - The Horse of Maharana Pratap The horse that Maharana Pratap rode in the Battle of Haldighati, fought on June 18, 1576, in Haldighati in the Aravalli Mountains of Rajasthan, western India, was known in traditional literature as Chetak. Chetak took Pratap safely away from the battle despite being injured, but he later passed away from his wounds. For centuries, Chetak is still living in the folklore of India. Incitatus - owned by Caligula Incitatus was a horse owned by the Roman Emperor Caligula. Although it is obvious from ancient records that this did not happen, Caligula had intended to appoint the horse as a consul. The poem "Caligula" by Zbigniew Herbert is about Incitatus' life. According to Robert Graves' I, Claudius, Incitatus was appointed a senator and placed on the list to become a consul. Later, Claudius removed Incitatus' government stipend and his status as senator because he didn't meet the necessary financial requirements. Later, Incitatus was killed after breaking his leg during a race. Marengo - owned by Napoleon Bonaparte Marengo was a grey Arabian stallion owned by Napoleon Bonaparte. The horse was named after the Battle of Marengo, which was one of Napoleon's greatest victories. Marengo was said to be a fearless and loyal mount, carrying Napoleon into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon's defeat, Marengo was captured by the British but was eventually returned to France, where he lived out the rest of his days. In his career, Marengo suffered eight wounds.

He fought for the Emperor in the battles of Austerlitz, Jena-Auerstedt, Wagram, and Waterloo. He was also commonly utilized for the 80-mile runs from Valladolid to Burgos, which he frequently finished in five hours. Napoleon I of France's renowned military horse was named Marengo and lived from roughly 1793 to 1831. After the Battle of Abukir in 1799, when he was six years old, he was imported to France from Egypt and given the name Marengo after the battle in which he successfully carried his rider. Marengo is an Arabian breed that most likely originated at the renowned El Naseri stud. Copenhagen - owned by King George III Copenhagen was a thoroughbred owned by King George III of England. He was known for his speed and strength, and he carried George III into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. During the battle, Copenhagen was injured, but he continued to carry the king until the end. After the battle, Copenhagen retired from active service and lived out the rest of his days in the royal stables. Copenhagen was of mixed Thoroughbred and Arabian ancestry. The name Copenhagen, which honors the British victory at the Second Battle of Copenhagen, was given to the foal in 1808. After the battle, the Duke kept riding Copenhagen in parades and other formal occasions. The horse was retired to the Duke's Stratfield Saye House and spent the remainder of his long life there as a pensioner.

[deathlessathanasia]

"The name Themis refers to “that which has been ordained,” the norms of society with respect to politics, social relations, and ritual. In Homer (Il. 20.4–6) Themis is the deity who summons and dismisses assemblies, and in cult she sometimes has the epithet Agoraia (of the Meeting Place). Themis also governs the natural world, which likewise functions according to divine laws. Hesiod (Theog. 901–4) says her children are Eunomia (Lawfulness), Dike (Justice), Eirene (Peace), and the Moirai (Fates), but also the Horai (Seasons), who ensure the orderly cycle of plant growth and decay. Our sources hint that Themis (like Thetis and perhaps Gaia) once played a more important role in early Greek pantheons and cosmologies. Pindar (fr. 30 Snell-Maehler) made Themis the first wife of Zeus, and she seems to have occupied the place of Hera in the Archaic pantheon of Thessaly. We lack detailed information about her Thessalian worship, but a Thessalian month name Themistios, along with the prevalence of personal names like Themistion and Themistokles in the region, show that her cult was popular in the Archaic period. A fourth-century altar from Pherai, inscribed with the names of six major goddesses, lists Hestia, Demeter, Athena, Aphrodite, Enodia (another important local goddess), and Themis.

As the personification of divine law, Themis was the confidante and frequent companion of Zeus, able to dispense knowledge of future events (hence the verb themisteuein, “to pronounce divine law” for the giving of oracles, and Themis’ strong mythic, though not cultic, presence at Delphi). In a lost seventh-century epic, the Cypria, she and Zeus planned the Trojan war as a way to reduce the population of the overburdened earth. Themis warned Zeus of the prophecy that the Nereid Thetis would bear a son more powerful than his father; hence Thetis was married off to the mortal Peleus, resulting in the birth of Achilles, while Helen, the casus belli, was born from the union of Zeus with his own daughter Nemesis. Awareness of Themis’ role in these events may account for the construction of a shrine to Themis within the sanctuary of Nemesis at Rhamnous in Attica."

- Ancient Greek Cults: A Guide by Jennifer Larson

#themis #quotes #excerpts

[jeannereames]

What were the government systems of Alexander's day? Were most cities still ruled by kings?

The questioner asked about “cities,” but I’m not sure in what area. I’m assuming Greece? But Greece is part of a larger region: the Mediterranean Basin and Ancient Near East. The Ancient Near East in particular had a prior history of interconnectedness from the Middle Bronze Age forward, and certainly by the Late Bronze Age, that included Greece and Egypt (or the Eastern Mediterranean).

So some quick terminology:

A city-state is a large urban center and its dependent villages and rural countryside as an independent political entity.

A nation-state is a geographical area united by a concept of shared ethnicity and political independence.

A state is a geographical area that may include multiple ethnic groups united under a political hegemony.

These can be of varying sizes, although as you can gather, states tend to be much larger than city-states. They can, however, have different government systems. An “empire” is always a state. In fact, Rome invented that term: imperator = emperor. But city-states and even nation-states can have kings or other forms of gov’t.

Government styles vary. All of these are found in the ANE/Med Basin by Alexander’s day:

Priest-kings, dynastic kings, god-kings, subject kings, chieftain-style kingship (rule by clan), councilar-monarchy, mixed-government, oligarchy, tyranny, representative democracy, full democracy

If we look just at Greece, you won’t find the sort of “absolute” monarch that we see in the ANE at the time with subject kings in some areas.

In the southern Greek city-states, the dominant form was a sort of modified oligarchy where an oligarchic council made most decisions, but the assembly of the people still had voting power. Athenian democracy (invented in 510/9 BCE) had spread to various places where it competed with modified oligarchies; it was more popular in Attic-Ionic areas but not exclusive to them: Corinth and Syracuse both had democracies when they didn’t have a tyrant (Syracuse). Also, we have “leagues,” but these are made up of independent city-states (or later kingdoms, namely Macedon) and form for a given reason. They don’t constitute a form of ruling government in themselves.

Sparta had its own wacky “mixed” system that still included 2 kings, but also had a democratic arm (ephors) and oligarchic arm (gerousia). It’s pretty much unique to Sparta. Doric areas and especially Aeolic were more likely to be modified oligarchies, but as noted, that’s not a given. Then you get to the north and find the increasingly monarchal systems from Thessaly to Epiros to Macedon. Thessaly had 4 powerful clans who competed for power and tyranny (I think really ought to be called ‘princes’ not tyrants) and eventually co-ruled as a tetrarchy imposed by Philip. Epiros had a king, but that king answered to a council, and again you have ruling families.

Macedon, both lower and Upper (prior to Philip) had chieftain kingships, or rule-by-clan. This same form, even looser, was found north of them in Illyria, Paionia, and Thrace. Various clans had kings, who occasionally managed to create a hegemony over other clans due to a particular king’s charisma. Incidentally, the early Medes and Persians seem to have had a similar form.

It’s rare that a figure with enough charisma emerged, but we do get them: Cyrus I and Philip, most obviously—but also Bardylis I (of Illyria) and Sitalkes I (of Odrysian Thrace). In the latter two cases, however, the areas were briefly united, then fell apart again, either right after or after a few sons. Although really, we could say that of Macedon. Philip united the region, forced in several previously independent norther Macedonian kingdoms (Elimeia and Lynkestis, especially), stole one or two from Epiros (Orestis in particular), then gobbled up a bunch of Greek cities east. Alexander ran away with the toy…and that dynasty died.

Of all 4 of those charismatic uniters, only Cyrus’s kingdom lasted. And it lasted because Darius I stepped in and fixed it. Otherwise, it would have collapsed not unlike Bardylis’s Illyrian dynasty. While Darius claimed a family connection, most modern historians recognize it as strained at best, and possibly entirely made up. Why Persia may have succeeded where the other 3 fell apart is because Cyrus stepped into a looooong tradition of monarchal rule present in the ANE back into the Bronze Age. Cyrus, and especially Darius built the Achaemenid Persian Empire on the shoulders of the Babylonian, Assyrian, etc. before. We could even say that’s what Alexander was trying to do himself. But it got too big and collapsed.

I hope that helps explain the systems. I didn’t touch the west, but it had some unique systems of it’s own, such as the Etruscan Council of 12 Cities, which was a governing council, but within the cities, they were ruled by kings. We don’t know a lot about Carthage because Rome trashed a lot of their internal records; Aristotle did include them in his Politics.

#asks #ancient politics #city-state #ancient Greek political structures #Greek democracy #ANE politics #chieftain-level kingship #ancient Macedonia #ancient Greece #Greek political history #Athenian democracy #Spartan mixed-government #Etruscan government #Persian empire #Thessalian government #Epirote government #Greek oligarchy #Classics #Tagamemnon

[pandaemoniumpancakes]

And having been granted no small share of delightful successes in Hellas, may they encounter from the gods no envious reversals. May the god not be pained in heart. But blessed and a worthy subject      for song in wise men’s eyes is that man, who conquers with his hands or the excellence of his feet and wins the greatest of prizes with courage and strength, and while still living sees his young son duly win Pythian crowns. The bronze heaven is never his to scale, but as for all the glories which our mortal race      attains, he completes the furthest voyage. And traveling neither by ships nor on foot could you find the marvelous way to the assembly of the Hyperboreans. With them Perseus, the leader of people, once feasted, upon entering their halls, when he came upon them sacrificing glorious hecatombs of asses to the god. In their banquets and praises Apollo ever finds greatest delight and laughs to see the beasts’ braying insolence. And the Muse is no stranger to their ways, for everywhere choruses of maidens, sounds of lyres, and pipes’ shrill notes are stirring. With golden laurel they crown their hair      and feast joyfully. Neither sickness nor accursed old age mingles with that holy race, but without toils or battles they dwell there, having escaped strictly judging Nemesis. Breathing courage in his heart, the son of Danaë once came—Athena led him— to that throng of blessed men. He slew      the Gorgon, and, bearing her head adorned with locks of serpents, came to the islanders, bringing them stony death. But to me, no marvel, if the gods bring it about, ever seems beyond belief. Hold the oar, quickly plant the anchor in the earth from the prow as a safeguard against the jagged reef, for the finest of victory hymns flit like a bee from one theme to another

Pindar, from ‘Pythian 10: For Hippokleas of Thessaly (Winner, Boys’ Diaulos, 498 B.C.)’ in Pindar. Olympian Odes. Pythian Odes, trans. William H. Race.

   εὐδαίμων δὲ καὶ ὑμνη-/ τὸς οὗτος ἀνὴρ γίνεται σοφοῖς,/ ὃς ἂν χερσὶν ἢ ποδῶν ἀρετᾷ κρατήσαις/ τὰ μέγιστ᾿ ἀέθλων ἕλῃ τόλμᾳ τε καὶ σθένει,

   ὁ χάλκεος οὐρανὸς οὔ ποτ᾿ ἀμβατὸς αὐτῷ·ὅσαις δὲ βροτὸν ἔθνος ἀγλαΐαις ἁ-πτόμεσθα, περαίνει πρὸς ἔσχατονπλόον·

   ἐμοὶ δὲ θαυμάσαι θεῶν τελεσάντων οὐδέν ποτε φαίνεται ἔμμεν ἄπιστον.

   “I hope, when the Ephyraeans/ pour forth my sweet voice beside the Peneius,/ that with my songs I may make Hippocleas/ even more splendid for his crowns/ in the eyes of his comrades and his elders,/ and the darling of unmarried girls. Indeed, desires/ for various things stir the minds of various men,// and each one who wins what he strives for/ may gain the coveted object of his immediate concern,/ but there is no sure sign to foresee what a year may bring./ I put my trust in the comforting hospitality/ of Thorax, who in his zeal to favor me/ yoked this four-horse chariot of the Pierians,/ as friend to friend and willing guide to guide.// When one tests it, gold shines forth on a touchstone/ as does an upright mind./ We shall praise as well his noble brothers/ because they uphold and exalt the state/ of the Thessalians; with good men rests/ the governance of cities as a cherished inheritance.”

#pindar

[cincinnatusvirtue]

Alexander III “The Great” Part 2: Where one empire falls, so must a new one rise...

Alexander the Great and the Macedonian army crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor in 334 BC.  The composition of his army at this point was primarily Greek but did include some non-Greeks as well.  It consisted of a mix of cavalry and infantry.  His cavalry included light cavalry mixing Greek and Thracian horsemen.  While his elite cavalry was the heavy cavalry known as the Companions of which Alexander always lead into battle personally, leading his royal contingent, it was made of the Macedonian landed nobility which was personally quite loyal to the king.  This was combined with Thessalian heavy cavalry from Central Greece as well.  His infantry included missle and melee infantry ranging from the phalanx or phalangists to his hoplites and hypaspists and various armed skirmishers both Greek and Thracians such as the peltasts.

The Macedonian army was faced by the Persians who called on forces from all across the empire.  Persians, Bactrians, Scythians, Sogdians, Syrians, Indians and even Greeks as mercenaries.  They too had infantry, cavalry, archers and even armed chariots.  Memnon of Rhodes, a Greek mercenary commander in Persian service advocated for a strategic withdrawal and scorch and earth tactics which would stretch Alexander’s supply lines and deny his forces food and supplies to forage or “live off the land”.  However, the Persian satraps of Anatolia saw this move as both undermining to morale and not worthwhile because the scorched earth would be their own fertile lands, hurting long term commerce.  Their contention was to fight the Macedonians head on before they ventured too far into the Persian Empire.

The first major battle, was the Battle of Granicus fought in May 334 BC in what is now western Turkey along the Granicus river, as was often the case Alexander would fight many of his classic battles along rivers.  For his part this was strategic, the Persian armed chariots could not be effective on muddy river banks where mobility was slowed.  The Persians knew the Macedonians would attempt to cross the river and hoped to slow their  advance their by bunching up the Macedonian forces.  The battle started with a feint attack on the Macedonian left, commanded by a trusted general, Parmenion who commanded the Thracian and Thessalian cavalry.  The Persians shifted many of their forces to meet this attack but in doing so weakened part of their line, Alexander personally lead his noble Companion cavalry into battle in a flying wedge formation.  In the melee, Alexander personally killed a number of Persian nobles but was nearly killed himself by one until a timely intervention by a Greek general named, Cleitus the Black severed the Persian’s arm clean off with sword still in their hand, saving Alexander’s life.  The Macedonian center now had time bought and moved its phalanxes into place across the river, supported by the bulk of the army now pushed back the Persians, the speed of their advance surprised the Persian forces who after some tough fighting retreated.  The retreat happened before they could commit their forces, namely the Greek mercenaries to battle.  This resulted in the Macedonians killing their fellow Greeks in a general massacre, viewing them as a traitors for having served the Persians.  Granicus was a resounding Macedonian victory, their first major one over the Persians.

The battle opened up Anatolia to the Greeks who began conquering the lands.  Some Persian satraps in the next several months surrendered their territory without a fight, hoping to spare their damage.  Alexander sometimes let Persians stay in their positions of power so long as they supplied his army and swore loyalty to him.  Gradually, Alexander worked his way along the coast to neutralize the Persian naval bases that could cut off supply lines back to Greece.  He also visited the city of Gordium which contained the fabled Gordian Knot which presented a riddle to many in the ancient world, the complicated and varied tied knot was a puzzle that required challengers to unravel it, the one who solved the puzzle was said to be destined to rule all of Asia.  Many had contemplated how to unravel the knot but failed.  Alexander’s solution was simple, cut the knot with his sword.

From Anatolia, Alexander hoped to advance into Syria and threaten the Levant.  It was at this point that the Persian Shah, Darius III personally lead an army to counter the Macedonian threat.  Darius’s army actually ventured behind the Macedonian army hoping to cutoff its supply lines and trap it deep in Persian territory with no hope of reinforcement.  Alexander did however rise to meet Darius.  They did do along the Southern Anatolian coast along a small river called Issus.  The Battle of Issus was fought in a narrow ground between the mountains and the sea, the ground was chosen by Darius to limit the mobility of the Macedonian cavalry which had been so effective at Granicus.  Darius’s army was as typical of the Persian forces was multiethnic and once again they relied on Greek mercenaries, arguably their best troops which Darius placed at the center with his royal bodyguard.  The Macedonian advance across the river was slowed by the river itself, the Persians fortifying their bank of the river and the Greek mercenaries hard fighting.  However, Macedonian hypaspists, tasked with guarding the phalanxes weak and vulnerable flank and rear managed to break through a line in the Persian-Greek forces.  This allowed Alexander to see an opportunity to strike unexpectedly at the heart of the Persians.  Taking his Companion cavalry, Alexander drove his force on a right flank maneuver and then wheeled toward the Persian center, straight at Darius.  The speed and fury of the Macedonian charge at the Persian King of Kings completely unnerved Darius and he fled in his chariot.  This collapsed the morale of the Persian center which also fled.  On the left flank of the Macedonians, Persian cavalry held back Parmenion’s left flank cavalry.  Ever the observer and adapter to the situations on the battlefield, Alexander would wheel his forces  to hit the Persians now exposed rear.  This surprise attack combined with the holes being punched in their mercenary forces and the flight of their king lead to a rout of Persian forces.  The Macedonians pursued and killed off many retreating Persians, gaining yet another decisive victory.  In the wake of this, Alexander captured members of Darius’s family including his wife, mother and two daughters.  Alexander held them as prisoners though they were by all accounts well treated during their captivity.  Darius himself retreated to the Persian capital in Babylon.  

Over the next year or two Alexander consolidated his gains in Anatolia and advanced down the Syrian coast, taking the Levantine cities either by surrender and sparing them destruction or in the case of Tyre and Gaza having to besiege them and after many months finally captured both.  Alexander then advanced to Egypt where he was proclaimed Pharaoh.  He also visited a temple where the Egyptian priests declared him the son of their supreme god, Amon Ra.  He introduced the Greek presence into Egypt and the Levant, something that was to last for centuries with the Greeks serving as Pharaohs of Egypt until Roman rule, with a Greek-Egyptian named Cleopatra being their last famed ruler, a descendant of the Ptolemaic dynasty that was established by one of Alexander’ s general, Ptolemy in the wake of Alexander’s death.  Something new was happening due to Alexander and the Hellenic presence in Egypt.  Greek and Egyptian culture to a degree synthesized and Greek culture was being spread to Persia’s various provinces.  He would also found the first of many cities bearing his name, Alexandria, now one of Egypt’s major cities.  It would become a famed center of learning and culture throughout the ancient world, blending Greek, Egyptian, Persian and other traditions into one center.  This was to become a hallmark of Alexander’s rule and legacy, as he would spread Hellenic culture to other parts of the world and increasingly it would blend with the local culture becoming a hybrid of East meets West.  Reflected in art, religion, currency, governance, commerce, day to day life and military tradition.

Meanwhile, back in Greece the mighty Sparta which had remained silent during Alexander’s Asian and African adventures finally rose up to challenge the Macedonians, Alexander nor his father directly fought the legendary Spartans and the question was raised who was mightier Sparta or Macedon.  Antipater, one of Alexander’s generals who stayed behind in Greece would answer that burning question.  The Macedonian army crushed the Spartans at the Battle of Megalopolis virtually fighting to the last man, killing their king in battle too.  This subdued the Spartan rebellion and Greek discontent over taxes and Alexander’s rule in general.

Darius III offered several attempts at negotiations with Alexander as all of Persia’s western provinces and African ones, namely Egypt, were being conquered, some without a fight which was a humbling experience for the Persian Shah.  His last offer at peace was to offer half of the Persian Empire to Alexander, all the Western provinces, to become co-rulers of the empire, to taken several thousand pounds of silver and gold as payment and to arrange a marriage between Alexander and one of his daughters.  Alexander did seriously consider the offer and all but one of his generals argued against it.  Alexander, refused seeking to have all the empire and not just half.  The war would continue.

Alexander now marched his forces into Mesopotamia or modern Iraq with the goal of taking the Persian political capital, Babylon.  Darius is believed to have anticipated the Macedonians would take a more direct route through the deserts of central and southern Iraq which with extreme heat and lack of supplies would drain their army.  Darius however, once again realized he was dealing with no ordinary for.  Alexander ever the clever strategist took his army on an unexpected route through Northern Iraq instead, nearing mountains that would shade or cool his forces from the intense heat of the deserts to the south.  This caught the Persians off guard and Darius was forced to instead move his own army northward.   Some Persians figured the Tigris River which the Macedonians numbering shy of 50,000 men would have to ford was too deep and strong.  However, Alexander’s army did cross and was now moving toward Babylon on the east side of the river.  Darius decided to find ground of his own choosing to meet and defeat the Macedonians.  He found it on a relatively flat plain east of modern Mosul, Iraq at a place called Gaugamela. 

By choosing an open expansive battlefield, Darius hoped not to be boxed in the way he had at Issus, this would allow more room for his chariots and cavalry to maneuver.  His force was estimated by modern scholars of being upwards of 100,000.  It included Indian war elephants and various contingents and mercenaries from all over the Persian Empire as was usual.  Alexander however as was often the case, took an unexpected maneuver and initiative which offset the Persians.  He moved his Companion cavalry from their right flank far out on what appeared to be an outflanking maneuver which deceived the Persians into thinking this was an maneuver that needed to be countered and indeed they sent a large force of cavalry from their left to meet and clash with the Macedonians.  As the Persians drew their forces to mirror and counter Alexander’s deep flank, they weakened their own center as was Alexander’s plan.  The deep flank was joined by his phalanx and hypaspists infantry which Alexander had gradually disengaged them from the flanking maneuver to meet the Persians center which fixed them in place.  Meanwhile, the Persian chariots armed with javelin throwers advanced only for the Macedonian regiments to part forming alleys for the chariots to pass through without causing damage, before the chariot riders were killed themselves.  Parmenion and the Thracian-Thessalian cavalry on the left also fixed the Persian right flank in place.  It was now time for Alexander’s decisive move.   The deep flank and the fixing in place of the Persian forces effectively weakened the Persian center by creating a gap which like at Issus, Alexander could strike at Darius’s jugular once more by driving his flying wedge Companion heavy cavalry right at the Persian center and split it’s force into pieces.  Darius, once again caught off guard by the Macedonian deception and fury fled the battlefield, causing panic and routing in his forces.  Parmenion’s left flank however was in jeopardy and just like as Issus, Alexander had to lead a counter charge to save his left from being overwhelmed which was encircled by Persian cavalry on all sides.  Darius fled and evaded capture or death as Alexander had hoped, but preservation of his army was more key to the long term goals of Alexander.  He attacked the Persians in their rear with some breaking off to loot the Macedonian camp before they were dispatched themselves.  The rest of the Persian army fled as the Macedonians shifted their forces to left to relieve Parmenion.  It was another victory and ultimately the final blow needed to defeat Darius and the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Alexander entered the Persian capital of Babylon which he claimed to enter as a liberator, he also went onto the cities of Susa and the ceremonial capital of Persepolis which was in the Persian heartlands of modern Iran, he burned Persepolis as payback for the Persians burning Athens 150 years earlier in the Persian invasion of Greece under Xerxes.  Now he was declared by his new Persian nobility Persian Shah himself and Lord of Asia, in addition to his titles as King of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League and Pharaoh of Egypt.  Effectively the Persian Empire ceased to be a real force at least in the western provinces.  Darius gave an impassioned speech to carry on the war in the eastern half of the empire which remained unconquered.  However, his satraps, especially one by the name of Bessus had enough of defeats and retreat by Darius, they took him prisoner and murdered their Shah.  Bessus was then self-proclaimed Shah but Alexander viewed Bessus as little more than an impostor, with himself as the real Shah and he considered the act of murdering Darius, the rightful ancestral King of Persia as cowardly and little more than petty and unjust, a crime punishable by death.  

Darius’s body would be recovered by Alexander as he set off in pursuit of Bessus.  He gave him a proper burial in the ancestral tombs of his dynasty.  Alexander had respect for Darius’s position and an appreciation of the Persian monarchy’s history even if they were enemies on the battlefield.  He now set about trying to consolidate a hold on his conquests through a mix of his Macedonian generals and Persians who proclaimed loyalty to him, becoming his new nobility and serving as provincial administrators.  He began to administer Persia, though largely as Persia had been run, seeing himself not as a new conqueror but as rightful inheritor to the prior Persian dynasty, this admiration for Persia along with the adoption of certain Persian customs and the maintenance of Persian governors and administrators by Alexander started to cause some resentment among his generals who unlike Alexander simply despised the Persians and felt Greek traditions superior.  The first cracks in Alexander’s otherwise impenetrable self-armor were starting to appear.  Yet, there was much work to do, such as the capture of Bessus and the conquest of the eastern remnants of the nominal Persian Empire.   Alexander’s gaze was fixed to the east to the ends of Persia and beyond, to the edge of the known world...

#Alexander the Great #darius iii #macedonia #persian empire #ancient greece #military history #military tactics #ancient world #granicus #issus #gaugamela

[labormyego]

It is told of Pyrrhus, that when first, from an adjacent hill or watchtower which gave him a prospect of the Roman army, he descried them drawn up in order, he observed, that he saw nothing barbarian-like in this barbarian line of battle. And all who came near Titus [of the Quinctii Flaminini], could not choose but say as much of him, at their first view. For they who had been told by the Macedonians of an invader, at the head of a barbarian army, carrying everywhere slavery and destruction on his sword's point; when in lieu of such an one, they met a man, in the flower of his age, of a gentle and humane aspect, a Greek in his voice and language, and a lover of honor, were wonderfully pleased and attracted; and when they left him, they filled the cities, wherever they went, with favorable feelings for him, and with the belief that in him they might find the protector and asserter of their liberties ...

... It was now the time of the celebration of the Isthmian games; and the seats around the racecourse were crowded with an unusual multitude of spectators; Greece, after long wars, having regained not only peace, but hopes of liberty, and being able once more to keep holiday in safety. A trumpet sounded to command silence; and the crier, stepping forth amidst the spectators, made proclamation, that the Roman Senate, and Titus Quinctius, the proconsular general, having vanquished King Philip and the Macedonians, restored the Corinthians, Locrians, Phocians, Euboeans, Achaeans of Phthiotis, Magnetians, Thessalians, and Perrhaebians to their own lands, laws, and liberties; remitting all impositions upon them, and withdrawing all garrisons from their cities. At first, many heard not at all, and others not distinctly, what was said; but there was a confused and uncertain stir among the assembled people, some wondering, some asking, some calling out to have it proclaimed again. When, therefore, fresh silence was made, the crier raising his voice, succeeded in making himself generally heard; and recited the decree again. A shout of joy followed it, so loud that it was heard as far as the sea. The whole assembly rose and stood up; there was no further thought of the entertainment; all were only eager to leap up and salute and address their thanks to the deliverer and champion of Greece ...

... But for Titus, the sports being now quite at an end, so beset was he on every side, and by such multitudes, that had he not, foreseeing the probable throng and concourse of the people, timely withdrawn, he would scarce, it is thought, have ever got clear of them. When they had tired themselves with acclamations all about his pavilion, and night was now come, wherever friends or fellow-citizens met, they joyfully saluted and embraced each other, and went home to feast and carouse together. And there, no doubt, redoubling their joy, they began to recollect and talk of the state of Greece, what wars she had incurred in defense of her liberty, and yet was never perhaps mistress of a more settled or grateful one that this which other men's labors had won for her ...

... But the returns which attended Titus Quinctius and the Romans, for their beneficence to the Greeks, terminated not in empty praises only; for these proceedings gained them, deservedly, credit and confidence, and thereby power, among all nations, for many not only admitted the Roman commanders, but even sent and entreated to be under their protection; neither was this done by popular governments alone, or by single cities; but kings oppressed by kings, cast themselves into these protecting hands. Insomuch that in a very short time (though perchance not without divine influence in it) all the world did homage to them. Titus himself thought more highly of his liberation of Greece than of any other of his actions, as appears by the inscription with which he dedicated some silver targets, together with his own shield, to Apollo at Delphi: —

Ye Spartan Tyndarids, twin sons of Jove, Who in swift horsemanship have placed your love, Titus, of great Aeneas' race, leaves this In honor of the liberty of Greece.

He offered also to Apollo a golden crown, with this inscription:—

This golden crown upon thy locks divine, O blest Latona's son, was set to shine By the great captain of the Aenean name. O Phoebus, grant the noble Titus fame!

--- Plutarch, Life of Flamininus

#titus quinctius flamininus #tagamemnon #ancient rome #ancient greece #history #greek city-states #roman republic #Plutarch #Philhellenism #greek liberty #Classics #Champion of the Hellenes

[pokemaniacal]

Something that’s been on my mind for a bit that your professional word may be able to help with. Would you happen to know how ethnically diverse the Greek and Roman empires were?

very

next question please

…

…what, you want more?  Oh, fine, but for the record this is not the sort of thing people just “happen to know.”

Okay so I’m assuming by “Greek empire” (remember, kids: there was never a politically autonomous and unified state called “Greece” or “Hellas” until 1822) you mean Alexander’s empire (320s BC) and the Hellenistic successor kingdoms (323 BC – 31 BC), and by “Roman empire” you mean Rome starting from the time it becomes a major interregional power (say, following the second Punic War, which ended in 201 BC) rather than just Rome in the time of the Emperors.  You could spend like most of a book on each of these just corralling the data that might let us answer this question, but whatevs.

Lesson one: the ancient Greeks and Romans did not think about ethnicity in the same way as we do.  In particular, they were not super hung up on the colour of people’s skin – skin colour in ancient art is more often a signifier of gender than race, because women are expected to spend less time outside and therefore have lighter skin (which is another whole thing that we shouldn’t even get into because this is an aristocratic ideal of female beauty and of course lots of Greek and Roman women would have worked outside).  Arguably the most important signifier of ethnicity to the Greeks and Romans was actually language, with everyone who didn’t speak Greek or Latin being a “barbarian” (traditionally this word is supposed to come from the Greeks thinking that all foreign languages sounded like “bar bar bar,” although I’ve also heard a convincing argument that it comes from the Old Persian word for taxpayer, barabara, and originally signified all subjects of the Persian king).

In the modern world we have designations of ethnicity that are super broad and grow in large part out of early and long-since-debunked anthropological theory that divided humanity into three biologically distinct races, Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid, and don’t really reflect a lot of important components of ethnicity.  The thing is, as the internet will happily tell you ad nauseam, race is a social construct.  Like, yes, designations of race describe real physical characteristics that arise from variation within human genetics, but the way we choose to bundle those characteristics is arbitrary, and where we choose to draw the lines is arbitrary (like, for a long time in the US, Greeks and Italians weren’t considered “white,” but today they definitely are, even though nothing changed about their genetics).  If we today were brought face to face with a bunch of ancient Greeks and Romans, we would probably be pretty comfortable with assigning a majority of them to the big pan-European tent of modern “whiteness,” but if you had asked them about it, they certainly would not have felt any kinship with the pale-skinned people of northern and western Europe from whom most English-speaking white people today are descended.  Those people were every bit as barbarian (and every bit as fair game for enslavement, for that matter) as the darker-skinned folk of the Middle East and North Africa.  Ancient Greeks and Italians also had loads of internal ethnic divisions – like, the Latins (the central Italian ethnic group to which the Romans belonged) were a different thing from the Umbrians to their east, the Etruscans to the north and the Oscans to the south.  In Greece, you had Dorians in the Peloponnese, Ionians in Attica and Asia Minor, Boeotians and Thessalians in central Greece, Epirotes in western Greece, and DON’T EVEN ASK about the Macedonians, because boyyyyyyyyy HOWDY you are NOT ready for that $#!tstorm.  The point is, race and ethnicity can be basically anything that you think makes you different from the people in another community.

So yeah, Alexander’s empire.  Alexander the Great conquered Persia, which was already the largest empire the world had ever seen at the time and incorporated dozens of ethnically distinct peoples (including many Greeks of Asia Minor, some of whom willingly fought against Alexander) through a philosophy of loose regional governance and broad religious tolerance.  Now, here’s the thing: Alexander had no idea how to run an empire of that scale.  No Greek did.  No one alive in the world did – except for the Persians.  Alexander didn’t have anything to replace the Persian systems of governance or bureaucracy, so… he didn’t.  Individual Persian governors were usually given the opportunity to swear loyalty to him and keep their posts; vacant posts were filled with Macedonians, but the hierarchy was basically untouched.  Alexander himself married a princess from Bactria (approximately what is now Afghanistan), Roxana, and had a kid with her, and encouraged other Macedonian nobles to take Persian wives as well, to help unify the empire.  Unfortunately Alexander, of course, had to go and bloody die less than two years after he’d finished conquering everything, and tradition holds that on his deathbed he told his friends that the empire should go “to the strongest,” which was an incredibly dumb thing to say and caused literally decades of war, which we are not even going to talk about because it is the most Game of Thrones bull$#!t in the history of history.  All you need to know is that when the dust settled there were basically three major Greco-Macedonian dynastic powers: the Antigonids in Greece, the Ptolemies in Egypt, and the Seleucids in Persia.

In terms of ethnic makeup the Antigonid kingdom is in principle the most straightforward because they’re basically still running the same Greece that Alexander’s father had conquered.  Even then, you should bear in mind that a) most Greek cities had legal provisions for allowing foreigners to live there under certain conditions (“foreigners” often meant Greeks from other cities, but in principle could be anyone), and b) the Greeks had a lot of slaves (many of whom were, again, Greeks from other cities, because that’s fine in ancient Greek morality, but a lot of them would have come from all over the place), and even though the Greeks didn’t count slaves as “people” or consider them a real part of a city’s ethnic composition, WE SHOULD.  The Ptolemaic kingdom in Egypt seems to have had a relatively small Greco-Macedonian upper class ruling over a native Egyptian, Libyan and Nubian peasant majority.  Members of that ruling class seem to have been kind of snobbish about any mixing between the two – only the very last Ptolemaic ruler, Cleopatra VII (yes, that Cleopatra), even bothered to learn the Egyptian language.  However, the Ptolemaic rulers did make some important cultural gestures of goodwill towards the Egyptians.  They took the native title of Pharaoh, which previous foreign rulers of Egypt hadn’t, and adopted a lot of traditional Pharaonic iconography like the double crown.  They also worshipped some of the most important Egyptian gods, most notably Isis, and may have kind of… deliberately created a new Greco-Egyptian god, Serapis, by blending together Osiris and Dionysus (Serapis actually becomes super important in the Roman period and is widely worshipped even outside Egypt).  And then there’s the Seleucids, an empire that did nothing but slowly collapse from the moment it was established.  They have a rough time of it because they have the largest land area to cover and dozens of distinct ethnic groups to bring together, and it doesn’t help that they kinda keep doing the Game of Thrones thing for about two hundred fµ¢&ing years.  They often get a bad rap in history and have a reputation for oppressing the non-Greek populations of their empire, but that’s probably at least partly because some of our most important sources for the Seleucids are Jewish, and the Seleucid kings’ relationship with the Jews broke down in a fairly spectacular fashion during the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175-164 BC).  It’s not clear whether that’s representative of the Seleucids’ normal relationship with their subject peoples, or a worst case scenario.  Also, the Seleucids tend to get painted as villains in the historical record by both the other Greek powers and the Romans, and never really get much of a chance to defend themselves because we don’t have Seleucid histories.  What is clear is that they inherited all the ethnic and religious diversity of the Persian Empire, and most of their rulers were half-Persian because they followed Alexander’s example by marrying into the Persian nobility.  After an initial period of conflict they also seem to have maintained cordial relations with the Mauryan Empire of India, their neighbour to the east, for several decades, and contemporary Indian sources talk about sending Buddhist missionaries into Seleucid lands, so… like, there might have been a bunch of Greek Buddhists running around the empire; that’s a thing.

Whew.  Okay, so that is a criminally brief answer to-

OH CHRIST YOU ASKED ABOUT THE ROMANS AS WELL

WHAT DO YOU PEOPLE WANT FROM ME

Right.  Romans.  One of the major schools of thought on how the Romans were able to create such an enormous and long-lasting empire in the first place is that their openness to accepting foreigners into their community gave them an enormous manpower advantage over every other ancient Mediterranean state.  Greek politics generally operates on the level of cities; even in the age of Alexander, individual cities have quite a lot of legislative autonomy.  Citizenship is also something that works on the level of cities: you aren’t a citizen of, say, the Seleucid Empire; you’re a citizen of Antioch, or Tyre, or Babylon, or whatever.  But then the Romans happen.  The Romans are weird, because they will sometimes just declare that all the people of an allied city are now also citizens of Rome.  In the early period of Rome’s expansion in the central Mediterranean, this meant (or so the theory goes) that they could draw upon larger citizen armies and sustain more casualties than their rivals.  This is how they beat Pyrrhus, the Greek king of Epirus (r. 297-272 BC), when he invaded Italy in response to disputes between Rome and the Greek colony of Tarentum; this is how they beat Hannibal, the legendary Carthaginian general, even after he annihilated the largest army the Romans had ever fielded at Cannae during the second Punic War (218-201 BC).  Now, at this point they are basically still just bringing in Italians, which we might consider ethnically homogenous even if they didn’t, but there’s more.

Once they really start to get going, the Romans enfranchise entire provinces at a time, like when the emperor Claudius (r. AD 41-54) decided to make everyone in Gaul (modern France, more or less) a Roman citizen.  The really interesting thing about this particular decision is that we actually have a copy of the speech he made to the Senate in Rome at the time, so we can examine his rationale.  Claudius’ argument is basically that being inclusive has always been what has made Rome stronger than its rivals, going right back to their mythological past, when Romulus populated his city with disenfranchised criminals from other communities (and, uh… women that they kidnapped from the next town over).  The Romans believed that everything great about their civilisation had originally been learned or borrowed from someone else – metalworking and irrigation from the Etruscans, infantry combat from the Greeks, shipbuilding from the Carthaginians, etc – so it wasn’t a huge stretch for them to believe that all these people should eventually become part of Rome as citizens (well… the ones who weren’t killed or enslaved in the conquest, anyway – no one ever said the Romans were saints).

The reason Claudius feels he needs to justify all this to the Senate is that citizenship (rather than any of the forms of semi-citizen rights that Romans would sometimes grant to their allies) will make rich Gauls eligible to become Senators themselves, and occupy other high-level posts like provincial governorships.  The decision affects the ethnic composition of the Senate, so even though he doesn’t actually need their permission to do it, he asks as a courtesy (the emperors’ relationship with the Senate is a weird and complicated thing).  Even without being a citizen, you could actually do a great deal in the Roman government in Claudius’ time.  Many of the most important jobs in the empire were ones that had existed during the age of the Republic, when Rome was theoretically a democracy, and all of those were restricted to citizens even after they stopped being elected positions – but there was also an imperial bureaucracy that answered directly to the emperor and his aides, and he was free to choose literally anyone to fill those positions.  As a result, a lot of emperors deliberately picked slaves and former slaves for loads of senior positions, specifically because their lack of citizen rights meant that they could never be political rivals, and because they were a useful counterbalance to the power of the blue-blooded Roman aristocracy.  And, again, slaves can be from basically anywhere.  A lot of these administrative slaves were Greeks, because Greek education provided useful skills for running the imperial bureaucracy that the Romans themselves often didn’t have, but emperors could and did commission literally anyone for these positions.

Eventually the emperor Caracalla (r. AD 211-217) just decided it wasn’t worth keeping track anymore and declared that every freeborn person in the entire empire, which by that point stretched from northern England to Morocco to Romania to Jordan, was now a Roman citizen.  All of these people are now “Romans,” regardless of their language or culture or religion; the only criterion is that they not be slaves or former slaves (and even if they’re former slaves, their children will be Roman citizens).  And these people can move, in ways that were never possible before the Empire existed, because Rome is the first – and so far the last – political entity ever to unite the entire Mediterranean region, which allows them to wipe out piracy almost completely and jump-start trade and travel in ways that would never happen again for over a thousand years.  My own research on Roman glass has led me to encounter glassblowers with Syrian or Jewish names working in northern Italy – people who were probably integral to spreading the technology of glassblowing to western Europe.  The Roman army also moves people around – like, a lot.  You might enlist in your home town in Syria, then serve on Hadrian’s wall and retire in northern England – in fact, we know that this happened because we’ve found stuff like inscriptions in the Aramaic language in Roman Britain.

Also Rome had, like… a whole dynasty of African emperors one time.  Septimius Severus (r. AD 193-211) and his successors were part Italian, part Punic (of Carthaginian descent – ultimately Middle Eastern, since the Carthaginians were originally a Phoenician colony) and part Berber (native North African), and Severus grew up in what is now Tunisia.  And that wasn’t really a big deal for the Romans, 1) because Severus’ Italian ancestry made him a Roman citizen, which trumps all other signifiers of ethnicity, and 2) Rome had already had a couple of emperors of Iberian (= Spanish) descent by this point who were considered some of the best ever, and the Iberians are just as “barbarian” as the Berbers as far as Rome is concerned.  Other Roman emperors of varied ethnicities include Philip (Arabian), Diocletian (Illyrian), the three Gordians (probably Cappadocian), and Elagabalus (Syrian, and incidentally the gayest Roman of all time; like, normally I would warn you to be super cautious about using modern labels like “straight” and “gay” for Romans because they just didn’t think about sexual orientation in those terms, but I make an exception here because Elagabalus was super gay).

Oh, and just because someone will definitely bring it up if I don’t, there was a big fuss in the news a few years back because someone discovered the skeletons of what they claimed were Chinese people living in, of all places, Roman Britain.  And to me, one Chinese family in Britain in the first century AD is not particularly a dramatic stretch of plausibility (a handful of people could easily slip through the historical record and just never be mentioned), but the evidence in this particular case falls some way short of “proof.”  There’s chemical data that suggests these individuals grew up somewhere far away from Britain, which is well and good, but the thing that points specifically to China is not the isotopic analysis but a study of bone morphology, and trying to determine someone’s ethnicity on the basis of what their bones look like, on the universal scale of things that are sketchy, ranks “sketchy as all fµ¢&.”  Again, I’m happy to believe that they exist, because China (Seres in Latin) and Rome (Dà-Qín in Chinese) definitely knew about each other, and we occasionally find Roman artefacts and coins in eastern Asia, or Chinese artefacts in the eastern Roman Empire, but the specific evidence for these individuals isn’t there, in my opinion.

…that was a brief answer.  Let it stand as a warning to others.

#QandA #not pokemon

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Open main menu EditWatch this pageRead in another language Trikala For other uses, see Trikala (disambiguation). Trikala Τρίκαλα Litheos river flowing through the city of Trikala Trikala Location within the region Coordinates: 39°33′N 21°46′E Country Greece Administrative region Thessaly Regional unit Trikala Government • Mayor Dimitris Papastergiou Area • Municipality 607.59 km2 (234.59 sq mi) • Municipal unit 69.2 km2 (26.7 sq mi) Elevation 115 m (377 ft) Population (2011)[1] • Municipality 81,355 • Municipality density 130/km2 (350/sq mi) • Municipal unit 62,154 • Municipal unit density 900/km2 (2,300/sq mi) Time zone EET (UTC+2) • Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3) Postal code 421 00 Area code(s) 24310 Vehicle registration ΤΚ Website www.trikalacity.gr Trikala (Greek: Τρίκαλα) is a city in northwestern Thessaly, Greece, and the capital of the Trikala regional unit. The city straddles the Lithaios river, which is a tributary of Pineios. According to the National Statistical Service, Trikala is populated by 81,355 inhabitants (2011), while in total the Trikala regional unit is populated by 131,085 inhabitants (2011). History Edit Antiquity Edit O: naked Thessalian youth restraining forepart of unruly prancing bull R:forepart of bridled prancing horse TPI KK AI (mirrored) Silver hemidrachm struck in Trikka 440-400 BC. [1]; During religious games, the young men of Thessaly participated in bull jumping and bull wrestling. In bull wrestling, participants would jump from a horse, naked save a chlamys and cap, to bring a bull down to the ground. The obverse shows a wrestler bringing down a bull and the reverse shows the horse running free after the leap was made. The game may have originated in Asia Minor and then traveled to Crete, where it is known the people of Thessaly learned the sport. A statue of Asclepius The region of Trikala has been inhabited since prehistoric times. The first indications of permanent settlement have been uncovered in the cave of Theopetra, and date back to approx. 49,000 BC. Neolithic settlements dating back to 6,000 BC have been uncovered in Megalo Kefalovriso and other locations. The city of Trikala is built on the ancient city of Trikka or Trikke, which was founded around the 3rd millennium BC and took its name from the nymph Trikke, daughter of Penaeus, or according to others, daughter of the river god Asopus. The ancient city was built at a defensive location in between the local hill and the river Lithaios. The city became an important center in Antiquity and it was considered to be the birthplace and main residence of the Healing God Asclepius. The city exhibited one of the most important and ancient of Asclepius' healing temples, called asclepieia. The city is mentioned in Homer's Iliad as having participated in the Trojan War with thirty ships under Asclepius' sons Machaon and Podalirius. In the Mycenean period, the city was the capital of a kingdom, and later it constituted the main center of the Thessalian region of Estaiotis, which occupied roughly the territory of the modern Trikala Prefecture. In historical times, the city of Trikke and the surrounding area experienced prosperity. It fell to the Achaemenid Persians in 480 BC, while ten years later it joined the Thessalian monetary union. In 352 BC it was united with the Macedonia of Philip II. The city became a location of hard battles between Macedonia and Rome. While Philip V of Macedon and his son Perseus tried to keep the city, after 168 BC it fell to the Roman Republic. Middle Ages Edit While the area was considered to be firmly under the rule of the Byzantine Empire, it was invaded nevertheless by a succession of raiders and nomadic tribes. Some of these tribes that raided the area include: Goths (396), Huns (447), Slavs (577), Bulgarians (986-1000), Normans (1082/3), Catalans (1309–1311). The city's current name first appears in the 11th-century Strategikon of Kekaumenos, where "Trikalitan Vlachs" are mentioned, and then in the early 12th-century Alexiad of Anna Komnene.[2] Later in the century, the Arab traveller and geographer al-Idrisi recorded the town as "an important agrarian center with abundant vineyards and gardens" (T.E. Gregory).[2] After the dissolution of the Byzantine state by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Trikala does not appear to have fallen into Frankish hands, but became part of the Despotate of Epirus. Epirote rule lasted until 1259, when the town was taken without resistance by the Empire of Nicaea (after 1261 the renewed Byzantine Empire) following the Battle of Pelagonia.[2] In the early 14th century the town was the capital of a semi-independent domain under the sebastokrator Stephen Gabrielopoulos, which extended across much of western Thessaly and Macedonia. After his death in 1332/3 the city, along with most of Gabrielopoulos' lands, was seized by the Epirote ruler John II Orsini, but he was in turn expelled and the area incorporated into the Byzantine Empire by Andronikos III Palaiologos.[2][3] In 1348, Thessaly was conquered by Stephen Dushan and incorporated into the newly established Serbian Empire. The Serbian general Preljub was made the region's governor, and established himself at Trikala. In 1359, Dushan's half-brother Symeon Uroš established his court at Trikala, and in 1366/7 he founded the Meteora monasteries nearby. Symeon was succeeded by his son John Uroš, and he in turn by the local magnates Alexios Angelos Philanthropenos and Manuel Angelos Philanthropenos, who ruled until the Ottoman conquest of Thessaly in 1393/4.[2][4] Ottoman and modern periods Edit Osman Shah Mosque Under Ottoman rule, the city was called Tırhala in Turkish. Its fortunes in the early period of Ottoman rule are unclear: it is reported as being part of a large sanjak under Ahmed, the son of Evrenos Bey, but in the early 15th century it formed part of the domain of Turahan Bey, who brought in Muslim settlers and granted privileges to the local Greek population. Turahan and his son and successor, Ömer Bey, erected many buildings in the city, helping it, in the words of the historian Alexandra Yerolimpos, to "[acquire] the appearance of a typical Ottoman town, with mosques, medreses, a hammam, imaret, khan and karwansaray extending beyond the citadel and the Varoussi (Varosh) quarter which remained Christian".[5] As the administrative center of the local province (the Sanjak of Trikala), the city attracted Muslim immigrants and had large Muslim and Jewish communities: in the 1454/5 census, the city had 2,453 inhabitants (251 Muslim families and 9 widows, and 212 Christian families and 73 widows); in 1506, the city numbered 3,100 inhabitants, with 260 Muslim, 310 Christian and 19 Jewish families; in 1520/38, the number had risen to 301 Muslim, 343 Christian, and 181 Jewish families.[5] The city also became an important intellectual center during these years (1543-1854) with the Trikke School (and later Greek School), where famous intellectuals of the time, such as Dionysius the Philosopher, taught. The 17th-century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi reports that the city had 2,300 houses divided into sixteen Muslim and eight Christian quarters (mahalla); eight mosques, of which only the city's main mosque, the Osman Shah Mosque built by Mimar Sinan, survives today; four hammams; six tekkes; and the probably exaggerated number of 1,000 shops, although Evliya curiously does not mention the city's impressive bezesten (covered market) which was demolished in the early 20th century.[5] The city was largely burned down in a great fire in 1749, a destruction repeated by Albanian irregulars following an abortive uprising by the local Christian population during the Orlov Revolt. Despite the destruction, its population seems to have remained the same, ca. 25,000, until the outbreak of the Greek Revolution in 1821.[5] By 1840, it reportedly had only 10,000 inhabitants, with the last Ottoman census in 1877/8 listing 25,000 inhabitants for the entire sanjak of Trikala.[5] On 23 August 1881 with the Treaty of Constantinople between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Greece, the city passed in Greek sovereignty, along with the rest of Thessaly. It became occupied again by Ottoman forces briefly during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. In the years that followed, Trikala played a fundamental role in the rural workers' mobilizations, in the early 20th century, against the Thessalian landlords (Greek: Τσιφλικάδες). Trikala eventually became the city that the first Agricultural Cooperative of Greece was founded, in 1906. The town lost much of its Ottoman and medieval buildings in the early 20th century, particularly after it was rebuilt to a modern urban plan in the 1930s.[5] Sights Edit Ruins of the Roman baths. Underneath lie the ruins of the ancient Asclepeion. View of the old town of Varousi. View of the clock tower, located within the medieval fortress of the old town (Varousi). A snapshot from the old town. The archaeological site of Asklepieion of Trikke, the most significant and the most ancient of Greece, according to Strabo. The Byzantine Castle, built by Justinian onto the acropolis of ancient Trikke in the 6th century AD. Later it was rebuilt by the Ottomans, who in the 17th century placed a huge clock tower, which was accompanied by a bell weighing 650 kg (1,433 lb). In 1936, another clock tower was placed and today remains the trademark of the city, while offers a panoramic view to the city. The Osman Shah Mosque (16th century), building designed by Mimar Sinan. Behind the mosque stands the mausoleum of Osman Shah, nephew of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent. The Old City of Trikala, which consists of the districts Varousi and Manavika. Varousi was the Christian district of Trikala during the Turkish rule and is located at the foot of the fortress. Until 1930, this part of the city was considered as the noble district of Trikala and is now preserved in its entirety, with a large number of old buildings, built between 17th and 19th century, preserved until today. In this part are located the oldest churches of the city. Following the district Varousi up to the central square is the part of the city called Manavika, a neighborhood of the old city with a uniform architecture. Here are located some of the best restaurants and coffee bars in town. The hill of Prophitis Ilias, a park with a nice view of the city and within walking distance from the city center. On this hill is situated the church of the Prophet Elijah and the zoo. Lithaios river and the Central Bridge, built in 1886, which connects the central square with the Asclepius pedestrian zone. The Mill of Matsopoulos, which was constructed in 1884 and today is a historical-industrial building and cultural center. During the Christmas period, the stone-built Matsopoulos Mill transforms into the “Mill of Elves”, a famous Christmas park The Trikala Train Station, built in 1886, the courthouse and many more historical and neoclassical buildings. Administration Edit The municipality Trikala was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 8 former municipalities, that became municipal units:[6] Estiaiotida Faloreia Kallidendro Koziakas Megala Kalyvia Paliokastro Paralithaioi Trikala The municipality has an area of 607.585 km2, the municipal unit 69.205 km2.[7] Province Edit The province of Trikala was one of the provinces of the Trikala Prefecture. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Trikala, Farkadona and Pyli.[8] It was abolished in 2006. Infrastructure Edit Trikala is home to the General Hospital of the Trikala Prefecture. The Physical Education and Sport Science department of the University of Thessaly is also located in Trikala, and was founded in 1994, with the first students being admitted in the academic year 1994-1995; it was originally housed in the Matsopoulos Park facility, but moved to the new Karyes campus in July 1999. Trikala has over 20 schools of secondary education, and a modern night technical school also functions in the town. Trikala has the distinction of being the first “smart city” in Greece – integrating technology-powered solutions into the daily life of the municipality and delivering government services to citizens through e-governance.[9] Sporting teams Edit Trikala F.C. crest Trikala F.C., a football team that competed in the Greek first division, as recently as the 1999–00 season. Trikala 2000 B.C., a basketball team that competed in the Greek top division, in the 2008–09 and 2009–10 seasons. The team was dismantled following the team's relegation from the top division, and ensuing financial difficulties. Aries Trikala B.C., a basketball team that is currently competing in the top division. International relations Edit See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece Trikala is twinned with: Amberg, Germany Braşov, Romania Chongqing, People's Republic of China Pyatigorsk, Russia[10] Talence, France Pace del Mela, Italy Tucson, United States[11] Historical population Edit View of the old railway station. Year Municipal unit Municipality 1991 48,857 74,832 2001 54,605 78,817 2011 61,653 81,355 Notable people Edit Asclepius (about 1247 BC) God of medicine in ancient Greek religion and mythology Œcumenius (about 990) Bishop of Trikka (now Trikkala) Evangelos Averoff (1910–1990) politician Georgios Kondylis (1879–1936) army officer, Prime Minister of Greece Stefanos Sarafis (1890-1957) major General in EAM-ELAS Sotirios Kyrgiakos (1979) footballer Dimitris Mitropanos (1948–2012) singer Christos Papanikolaou (1941) pole vaulter Efthimios Rentzias (1976) basketball player Vassilis Tsitsanis (1915–1984) songwriter and singer Sofia Sakorafa (1957) javelin's thrower, politician Georgios Koltsidas (1970) footballer Dimitrios Sgouros (1969) pianist Kostas Papanikolaou (1990) basketball player Achilles Holebas, father of Greek footballer José Holebas Kostas Fortounis (1993) footballer References Edit ^ a b "Απογραφή Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. ^ a b c d e Gregory, Timothy E. (1991). "Trikkala". In Kazhdan, Alexander. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 2115–2116. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. ^ Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. pp. 246, 252–253. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5. ^ Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. pp. 320, 352–353. ISBN 978-0-472-08260-5. ^ a b c d e f Yerolimpos, Alexandra (2000). "Tirḥāla". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume X: T–U. Leiden and New York: BRILL. pp. 539–540. ISBN 90-04-11211-1. ^ Kallikratis law Greece Ministry of Interior (Greek) ^ "Population & housing census 2001 (incl. area and average elevation)" (PDF) (in Greek). National Statistical Service of Greece. ^ "Detailed census results 1991" (PDF). (39 MB) (Greek) (French) ^ The ‘smart city’ of Trikala and the future of Greece, 24.03.2017 ^ "Twinnings" (PDF). Central Union of Municipalities & Communities of Greece. Retrieved 2013-08-25. ^ "Tucson Sister Cities". Interactive City Directory. Sister Cities International. Retrieved 4 September 2013. External links Edit Trikala local portal City of Trikala Trikala wi-fi Internet coverage Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Trikkala". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trikala. Last edited 12 days ago by Quasar G. RELATED ARTICLES Trikala (regional unit) History of Thessaly aspect of history Sanjak of Tirhala Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. Terms of UsePrivacyDesktop

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Welcome to "Horses of Heroes", a blog dedicated to exploring the incredible bond between humans and their equine companions. Throughout history, horses have played a vital role in human society, serving as transportation, companions, and even warriors in times of conflict. This blog is particularly focused on the relationship between horses and heroes, highlighting the horses that have played important roles in the lives of legendary figures such as Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Joan of Arc, and many more. We'll also examine the ways in which horses have been depicted in art, literature, and popular culture, and the impact they continue to have on our society today. Whether you're a seasoned equestrian or simply fascinated by the enduring connection between humans and horses, "Horses of Heroes" is the perfect place to dive deep into the world of equine history and culture. Join us on this journey as we explore the incredible stories of these magnificent animals and the heroes they have accompanied throughout history. Bucephalus - owned by Alexander the Great A famous horse of classical history, Bucephalus was the mount of Alexander the Great. The term "Bucephalus" comes from a branding mark that shows the head of an ox on his hindquarters. Bucephalus is characterized as a huge beast with a huge head, a black coat, and a great white star on his brow. He was bred from the "greatest Thessalian strain," and he is said to have had a blue eye as well. Bucephalus was made available to King Philip II by a horse trader named Philonicus the Thessalian against a high price. Philip father of Alexander had no interest in trying to tame the beast because no one could. Given the chance, Alexander stunned everyone by controlling it. The horse's anguish had been brought on by its ability to perceive its own shadow, so he comforted it and turned it toward the direction of the sun. Alexander managed to control the horse by letting go of his flapping cloak as well. Sources claim that Bucephalus passed away at the age of thirty. However, other versions attribute the death to fatal wounds sustained during the Battle of the Hydaspes (June 326 BC), where Alexander's forces defeated King Porus, rather than old age or exhaustion. Alexander created the city of Bucephala in honor of his steed. It was situated on the western bank of river Jhelum in Pakistan. Bucephalus is supposedly interred outside of Jhelum in the contemporary town of Jalalpur Sharif. Chetak - The Horse of Maharana Pratap The horse that Maharana Pratap rode in the Battle of Haldighati, fought on June 18, 1576, in Haldighati in the Aravalli Mountains of Rajasthan, western India, was known in traditional literature as Chetak. Chetak took Pratap safely away from the battle despite being injured, but he later passed away from his wounds. For centuries, Chetak is still living in the folklore of India. Incitatus - owned by Caligula Incitatus was a horse owned by the Roman Emperor Caligula. Although it is obvious from ancient records that this did not happen, Caligula had intended to appoint the horse as a consul. The poem "Caligula" by Zbigniew Herbert is about Incitatus' life. According to Robert Graves' I, Claudius, Incitatus was appointed a senator and placed on the list to become a consul. Later, Claudius removed Incitatus' government stipend and his status as senator because he didn't meet the necessary financial requirements. Later, Incitatus was killed after breaking his leg during a race. Marengo - owned by Napoleon Bonaparte Marengo was a grey Arabian stallion owned by Napoleon Bonaparte. The horse was named after the Battle of Marengo, which was one of Napoleon's greatest victories. Marengo was said to be a fearless and loyal mount, carrying Napoleon into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon's defeat, Marengo was captured by the British but was eventually returned to France, where he lived out the rest of his days. In his career, Marengo suffered eight wounds.

He fought for the Emperor in the battles of Austerlitz, Jena-Auerstedt, Wagram, and Waterloo. He was also commonly utilized for the 80-mile runs from Valladolid to Burgos, which he frequently finished in five hours. Napoleon I of France's renowned military horse was named Marengo and lived from roughly 1793 to 1831. After the Battle of Abukir in 1799, when he was six years old, he was imported to France from Egypt and given the name Marengo after the battle in which he successfully carried his rider. Marengo is an Arabian breed that most likely originated at the renowned El Naseri stud. Copenhagen - owned by King George III Copenhagen was a thoroughbred owned by King George III of England. He was known for his speed and strength, and he carried George III into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. During the battle, Copenhagen was injured, but he continued to carry the king until the end. After the battle, Copenhagen retired from active service and lived out the rest of his days in the royal stables. Copenhagen was of mixed Thoroughbred and Arabian ancestry. The name Copenhagen, which honors the British victory at the Second Battle of Copenhagen, was given to the foal in 1808. After the battle, the Duke kept riding Copenhagen in parades and other formal occasions. The horse was retired to the Duke's Stratfield Saye House and spent the remainder of his long life there as a pensioner.

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Welcome to "Horses of Heroes", a blog dedicated to exploring the incredible bond between humans and their equine companions. Throughout history, horses have played a vital role in human society, serving as transportation, companions, and even warriors in times of conflict. This blog is particularly focused on the relationship between horses and heroes, highlighting the horses that have played important roles in the lives of legendary figures such as Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Joan of Arc, and many more. We'll also examine the ways in which horses have been depicted in art, literature, and popular culture, and the impact they continue to have on our society today. Whether you're a seasoned equestrian or simply fascinated by the enduring connection between humans and horses, "Horses of Heroes" is the perfect place to dive deep into the world of equine history and culture. Join us on this journey as we explore the incredible stories of these magnificent animals and the heroes they have accompanied throughout history. Bucephalus - owned by Alexander the Great A famous horse of classical history, Bucephalus was the mount of Alexander the Great. The term "Bucephalus" comes from a branding mark that shows the head of an ox on his hindquarters. Bucephalus is characterized as a huge beast with a huge head, a black coat, and a great white star on his brow. He was bred from the "greatest Thessalian strain," and he is said to have had a blue eye as well. Bucephalus was made available to King Philip II by a horse trader named Philonicus the Thessalian against a high price. Philip father of Alexander had no interest in trying to tame the beast because no one could. Given the chance, Alexander stunned everyone by controlling it. The horse's anguish had been brought on by its ability to perceive its own shadow, so he comforted it and turned it toward the direction of the sun. Alexander managed to control the horse by letting go of his flapping cloak as well. Sources claim that Bucephalus passed away at the age of thirty. However, other versions attribute the death to fatal wounds sustained during the Battle of the Hydaspes (June 326 BC), where Alexander's forces defeated King Porus, rather than old age or exhaustion. Alexander created the city of Bucephala in honor of his steed. It was situated on the western bank of river Jhelum in Pakistan. Bucephalus is supposedly interred outside of Jhelum in the contemporary town of Jalalpur Sharif. Chetak - The Horse of Maharana Pratap The horse that Maharana Pratap rode in the Battle of Haldighati, fought on June 18, 1576, in Haldighati in the Aravalli Mountains of Rajasthan, western India, was known in traditional literature as Chetak. Chetak took Pratap safely away from the battle despite being injured, but he later passed away from his wounds. For centuries, Chetak is still living in the folklore of India. Incitatus - owned by Caligula Incitatus was a horse owned by the Roman Emperor Caligula. Although it is obvious from ancient records that this did not happen, Caligula had intended to appoint the horse as a consul. The poem "Caligula" by Zbigniew Herbert is about Incitatus' life. According to Robert Graves' I, Claudius, Incitatus was appointed a senator and placed on the list to become a consul. Later, Claudius removed Incitatus' government stipend and his status as senator because he didn't meet the necessary financial requirements. Later, Incitatus was killed after breaking his leg during a race. Marengo - owned by Napoleon Bonaparte Marengo was a grey Arabian stallion owned by Napoleon Bonaparte. The horse was named after the Battle of Marengo, which was one of Napoleon's greatest victories. Marengo was said to be a fearless and loyal mount, carrying Napoleon into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. After Napoleon's defeat, Marengo was captured by the British but was eventually returned to France, where he lived out the rest of his days. In his career, Marengo suffered eight wounds.

He fought for the Emperor in the battles of Austerlitz, Jena-Auerstedt, Wagram, and Waterloo. He was also commonly utilized for the 80-mile runs from Valladolid to Burgos, which he frequently finished in five hours. Napoleon I of France's renowned military horse was named Marengo and lived from roughly 1793 to 1831. After the Battle of Abukir in 1799, when he was six years old, he was imported to France from Egypt and given the name Marengo after the battle in which he successfully carried his rider. Marengo is an Arabian breed that most likely originated at the renowned El Naseri stud. Copenhagen - owned by King George III Copenhagen was a thoroughbred owned by King George III of England. He was known for his speed and strength, and he carried George III into many battles, including the Battle of Waterloo. During the battle, Copenhagen was injured, but he continued to carry the king until the end. After the battle, Copenhagen retired from active service and lived out the rest of his days in the royal stables. Copenhagen was of mixed Thoroughbred and Arabian ancestry. The name Copenhagen, which honors the British victory at the Second Battle of Copenhagen, was given to the foal in 1808. After the battle, the Duke kept riding Copenhagen in parades and other formal occasions. The horse was retired to the Duke's Stratfield Saye House and spent the remainder of his long life there as a pensioner.