#c. 2nd century BC - 1st century AD

[blueiskewl]

Hellenistic bronze vessel with leaf–shaped handles c. 2nd century BC - 1st century AD

#Hellenistic bronze vessel with leaf–shaped handles #c. 2nd century BC - 1st century AD #bronze #ancient bronze #ancient artifacts #archeology #archeolgst #history #history news #ancient history #ancient culture #ancient civilizations #ancient greece #greek history #greek art

[m1male2]

The Pudic Venus of the classical world are the representation of the goddess Aphrodite, naked or semi-naked, at the precise moment of modestly covering her "shame" or private parts, as if she had been surprised at the time of bathing or dressing.

It was one of the most typical artistic motifs of Classical Antiquity.

Let's see some examples:

-Photo 1, The Venus de Medici, Roman copy 1st c. BC, from the sculpture of Praxiteles from the 4th century BC

-Photo 2, Venus Capitolina, copy of the 2nd century from an original sculpture by Praxiteles. Capitoline Museums, Vatican.

-Photo 3, Aphrodite or Venus of Cnido, also called Altemps or Ludovisi. Work of the Greek author Praxiteles made around the year 360 B.C. Altemps Palace Museum, Rome.

-Photo 4, Aphrodite of Syracuse. Roman copy of the 2nd century AD. from a Greek original of the 4th century B.C.; neck, head and left arm are restorations by Antonio Canova. Found in Baiae, southern Italy. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

#photography #art #culture #esculpture #museum #ancient cultures

[whiterosechrista]

Famous/Important Women?

I'm trying to make a list of notable women in history (mostly for fun, partially to use against misogynists who think men did everything), and kinda not wanting to just look up a list online.

So; I'd like anyone who sees this post to add to the list. Even if all you can remember is a name and basic details, that's enough (I myself am mostly operating off memory, and then looking up details to fill in the blanks). If possible though, a date of birth/death and what they're most known for would be great, since those are the details I'm focusing on right now.

I'll add all new people/details to a list here on Tumblr so we're all on the same page info-wise.

List so far:

Enheduanna (𒂗𒃶𒌌𒀭𒈾), Birthdate unknown (c. 23rd century BCE), death date unknown (c. 23rd century BCE). High Priestess of Nanna/Sin (Sumerian Moon God), Daughter of Sargon (Founder of the Akkadian Empire), Earliest Known Named Author in History.

Nitocris (Greek: Νίτωκρις). Birthdate Unknown (c. 22nd century BCE), death date unknown (c. 22nd century BCE). Possible Queen of Egypt; If So, Would Have Been the Last Queen of the Sixth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (c.2686 – 2181 BC).

Sobekneferu (Neferusobek). Birthdate unknown (mid 18th century BC), death date unknown (mid 18th century BC). Queen of Egypt, the Last Ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom, Reign Lasted 3 Years, 10 Months, and 24 days, Ending in c. 1802 BC.

Hatshepsut. Born ~1507 BC, died 1458 BC. Queen of Egypt (c. 1479 – 1458 BC), Fifth Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt, Prolific Builder, Reigned in Peace and Prosperity.

Sappho (Modern Greek: Σαπφώ (Sapphṓ), Aeolic Greek: Ψάπφω (Psápphō)). Born c. 630 BC, died c. 570 BC. Ancient Greek Poetess, Famous for Love Poems, Symbol of Lesbian Love, Known as “The Tenth Muse”.

Timarete (Thamyris, Tamaris, Thamar (Greek: Τιμαρέτη)). Birthdate unknown (c. 5th century BC), death date unknown (c. 5th century BC). Ancient Greek Painter; According to Pliny the Elder, She "Scorned the Duties of Women and Practiced Her Father's Art." At the Time of Archelaus I of Macedon She Was Best Known for a Panel Painting of the Goddess Diana That Was Kept at the City of Ephesus.

Helena of Egypt. Birthdate unknown (4th century BC), death date unknown (c. 4th century BC). Painter, Learned From Her Father, Worked in the Period After the Death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Painted a Scene of Alexander Defeating the Persian Ruler, Darius III, at the Battle of Issus.

Kalypso. Birthdate unknown (c. 3rd century BC), death date unknown. Supposed Ancient Greek Painter (existence disputed).

Aristaineta. Birthdate unknown (3rd century BCE), death date unknown (3rd century BCE). Aetolian Woman, Dedicated a Large Monument at the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi Which Included Her Mother, Father, Son, and Herself, Which Was a Symbol of Social Status Usually Reserved For the Male Head of the Family.

The Vestal Three (Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia). Born in the 2nd century BC, died December, 114 BC (Aemilia), and 113 BC (Licinia and Marcia). Roman Vestal Virgins (Priestesses), Prosecuted For Having Broken the Vow of Chastity in Two Famous Trials Between 115 and 113 BC.

Iaia of Cyzicus (Ιαία της Κυζίκου). Born c. 2nd century BC, died c. 1st century BC. Famous Greek Painter and Ivory Carver, Most of Her Paintings are Said to Have Been of Women. According to Pliny the Elder; "No One Had a Quicker Hand Than She in Painting." Remained Unmarried All Her Life.

Cleopatra (Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator). Born ~69 BC, died August 10, 30 BC. Queen of Egypt (51 – 30 BC), Last Active Ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, Only Known Ptolemaic Ruler to Learn the Egyptian Language.

Soseono (소서노) (Yeon Soseono (연소서노)). Born 66/7 BCE, died 6 BCE. Queen Consort of Goguryeo, One of the Three Kingdoms of Korea (37 – 18 BC), Queen dowager of Baekje (Another of the Three Kingdoms) (18 – 6 BC), Founder of Baekje (18 BC).

Heo Hwang-ok (허황옥) (Empress Boju (보주태후)). Born 32 AD, died 189 AD. Legendary Queen of  Geumgwan Gaya, Mentioned in Samguk yusa (a 13th-Century Korean Chronicle), Believed to Originally be From India.

Septimia Zenobia (𐡡𐡶𐡦𐡡𐡩, Bat-Zabbai). Born ~240, died ~274. Queen of Palmyra (267 – 272), Queen of Egypt (270 – 272), Empress of Palmyra (272).

Hypatia. Born c. 350–370 AD, died March, 415 AD. Neoplatonist Philosopher, Astronomer, and Mathematician, Prominent Thinker in Alexandria, Taught Philosophy and Astronomy, Beloved by Pagans and Christians Alike.

Seondeok of Silla (선덕여왕) (Kim Deokman (덕만)). Born c. 580 or 610, died 20 February, 647. Queen of Silla, One of the Three Kingdoms of Korea (632 – 647), Silla's Twenty-Seventh Ruler and First Reigning Queen, Known as a Wise and Kind Monarch.

Jindeok of Silla (진덕여왕) (Kim Seungman (김승만)). Birthdate unknown, died 654. Queen of Silla, One of the Three Kingdoms of Korea (647 – 654), Silla’s Twenty-Eighth Ruler and Second Reigning Queen, Greatly Improved Relations With China.

Jinseong of Silla (진성여왕) (Kim Man (김만)). Born c. 865, died 897. Queen of Silla, One of the Three Kingdoms of Korea (887-897), Silla’s Fifty-First Ruler, Third and Last Reigning Queen, Said to be Smart by Nature, But Whose Reign Saw the Weakening of Unified Silla.

Ende (En). Born c. 10th Century AD, died c. 10th Century AD. First Spanish Female Manuscript Illuminator to Have Her Work Documented Through Inscription.

Diemoth (Latinized: Diemudus, Diemut, Diemud, Diemuth, Diemod or Diemudis). Born c. 1060, died c. 30 March, 1130. Recluse at Wessobrunn Abbey in Upper Bavaria, Germany, Worked on 45 Manuscripts From 1075 to 1130.

Lǐ Qīngzhào (李清照) (a.k.a. Yian Jushi (易安居士)). Born 1084, died c.1155. Chinese Poet and Essayist, Defiant Visionary, Known as “The Most Talented Woman In History.”

Gunnborga (a.k.a Gunnborga den Goda (literary: 'Gunnborga the Good')). Born c. 11th century, died c. 11th century. Viking Age Swedish Runemaster, Responsible for the Hälsingland Rune Inscription 21, Known as the Only Confirmed Female Runemaster.

Hildegard of Bingen (German: Hildegard von Bingen, Latin: Hildegardis Bingensis, a.k.a Saint Hildegard/the “Sibyl of the Rhine”). Born c. 1098, died 17 September, 1179. German Benedictine Abbess and Polymath, Active as a Writer, Composer, Philosopher, Mystic, Visionary, and Medical Writer/Practitioner During the High Middle Ages.

Matilda of England (Empress Matilda, Empress Maude, the “Lady of the English”). Born c. 7 February, 1102, died 10 September, 1167. Holy Roman Empress (1114 – 1125), Disputed Queen of England (1141 – 1148).

Guda. Born 12th Century AD, died 12th Century AD. German Nun and Illuminator, One of the First Women to Create a Self-Portrait in a Manuscript.

Herrad of Landsberg (Latin: Herrada Landsbergensis). Born c. 1130, died July 25, 1195. Alsatian Nun and Abbess of Hohenburg Abbey in the Vosges Mountains, Known as the Author of the Pictorial Encyclopedia Hortus Deliciarum (The Garden of Delights) (completed in 1185).

Claricia (Clarica). Born c. 12th Century AD, died c. 13th Century AD. German Laywoman and Illuminator, Noted for Including a Self-Portrait in a South German Psalter of c. 1200.

Jefimija (Јефимија) (Jelena Mrnjavčević (Serbian Cyrillic: Јелена Мрњавчевић)). Born 1349, died 1405. Considered the First Female Serbian Poet. Her Lament for a Dead Son and Encomium of Prince Lazar are Famous in the Canon of Medieval Serbian Literature. Also a Skilled Needlewoman and Engraver.

Christine de Pizan (Cristina da Pizzano). Born September, 1364, died c. 1430. Italian-Born French Poet and Court Writer for King Charles VI of France and Several French Dukes. Considered to be One of the Earliest Feminist Writers; Her Work Includes Novels, Poetry, and Biography, and also Literary, Historical, Philosophical, Political, and Religious Reviews and Analyses.

Joan of Arc (Jeanne d’Arc, Jehanne Darc). Born ~1412, died 30 May, 1431. French Knight, Martyr, and Saint, Burned at the Stake.

Catherine of Bologna (Caterina de' Vigri). Born 8 September, 1413, died 9 March, 1463. Italian Poor Clare, Writer, Teacher, Mystic, Artist, and Saint; The Patron Saint of Artists and Against Temptations.

Elena de Laudo. Born c. 15th Century AD, died c. 15th Century AD. Venetian Glass Artist, Belonged to a Glass Painter Family of Murano, is Noted to Have Painted Blanks Delivered to Her From the Workshop of Salvatore Barovier in 1443–1445.

Maria Ormani (Maria di Ormanno degli Albizzi). Born 1428, died c. 1470. Italian Augustinian Hermit Nun-Scribe and Manuscript Illustrator, Most Notable Work is an Apparent Self-Portrait in a Breviary That She Signed and Dated 1453; the Earliest Dated Self-Portrait by a Woman Artist in Italian Renaissance Art.

Sister Barbara Ragnoni (Suor Barbara Ragnoni). Born 1448, died 1533. Italian Nun and Artist for Whom Only One Work Remains Extant; Her Signed Painting, The Adoration of the Shepherds (c. 1500).

Antonia Uccello. Born 1456, died 1491. Carmelite Nun, Noted as a "Pittoressa" (Painter) on Her Death Certificate; Her Style and Skill Remain a Mystery as None of Her Work is Extant.

Marietta Barovier. Born 15th Century AD, died c. 15th/16th Century AD. Venetian Glass Artist, the Artist Behind a Particular Glass Design from Venetian Murano; the Glass Bead Called Rosette or Chevron Bead, in 1480. In 1487 She Was Noted to Have Been Given the Privilege to Construct a Special Kiln (Sua Fornace Parrula) for Making "Her Beautiful, Unusual and Not Blown Works".

Catherine of Aragon (Katherine, Catharina, Catalina). Born 16 December, 1485, died 7 January, 1536. First Wife of King Henry VIII, Queen Consort of England (1509 – 1533).

Properzia de' Rossi. Born c. 1490, died 1530. Ground-Breaking Female Italian Renaissance Sculptor, One of Only Four Women to Receive a Biography in Giorgio Vasari's Lives of the Artists.

Anne Boleyn. Born c. 1501 or 1507, died 19 May, 1536. Second Wife of King Henry VIII, Queen Consort of England (1533 – 1536), Martyr, Executed on False Charges.

Jane Seymour. Born c. 1508, died 24 October, 1537. Third Wife of King Henry VIII, Queen Consort of England (1536 – 1537), Died of Postnatal Complications.

Levina Teerlinc. Born in the 1510s, died 23 June, 1576. Flemish Renaissance Miniaturist who Served as a Painter to the English Court of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.

Catherine Parr (Kateryn Parr). Born c. August, 1512, died 5 September, 1548. Sixth Wife of King Henry VIII, Queen Consort of England and Ireland (1543 – 1547), First English Woman to Publish an Original Work Under Her Own Name, Widowed, Remarried, Died in Childbirth.

Anne of Cleves (Anna von Kleve). Born 28 June or 22 September, 1515, died 16 July, 1557. Fourth Wife of King Henry VIII, Queen Consort of England (6 January 1540 – 12 July 1540), Marriage Annulled, Outlived All Other Wives.

Mary I of England (Mary Tudor). Born 18 February, 1516, died 17 November, 1558. First Undisputed Regnant Queen of England and Ireland (1553 – 1558), Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon.

Mayken Verhulst (a.k.a. Marie Bessemers). Born 1518, died 1596 or 1599. 16th-Century Flemish Miniature, Tempera and Watercolor Painter and Print Publisher, Actively Engaged in the Workshop of Her Husband, Posthumously Publishing His Works. While Recognized as an Exceptionally Skilled Artist, Little is Known About Her Works or Life as There are Few Surviving Sources.

Catherine Howard (Katheryn Howard). Born c. 1523, died 13 February, 1542. Fifth Wife of King Henry VIII, Queen Consort of England (1540 – 1541), Stripped of Title, Beheaded for ‘Treason’.

Sister Plautilla Nelli (Pulisena Margherita Nelli). Born 1524, died 1588. Self-Taught Nun-Artist, the First Ever Known Female Renaissance Painter of Florence, and the Only Renaissance Woman Known to Have Painted the Last Supper.

Caterina van Hemessen (Catharina van Hemessen). Born 1528, died after 1565. Flemish Renaissance Painter, the Earliest Female Flemish Painter for Whom There is Verifiable Extant Work, Possibly Created the First Self-Portrait of an Artist (of Either Gender) Depicted Seated at an Easel (1548).

Sofonisba Anguissola (a.k.a Sophonisba Angussola or Sophonisba Anguisciola). Born c. 1532, died 16 November, 1625. Italian Renaissance Painter, Born to a Relatively Poor Noble Family, Got a Well-Rounded Education That Included the Fine Arts; Her Apprenticeship With Local Painters Set a Precedent for Women to be Accepted as Students of Art.

Elizabeth I of England (Elizabeth Tudor, the “Virgin Queen”). Born 7 September, 1533, died 24 March, 1603. Regnant Queen of England and Ireland (1558 – 1603), Last Monarch of the House of Tudor, Daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn.

Lucia Anguissola. Born 1536 or 1538, died c. 1565 – 1568. Italian Mannerist Painter of the Late Renaissance, Younger Sister of Sofonisba, Who She Likely Trained With.

Lady Jane Grey (Lady Jane Dudley (married name)). Born  ~1537, died 12 February, 1554. Queen of England for ~9 days (~10 July, 1553 – 19 July, 1553) (disputed), First Cousin Once Removed of Mary I and Elizabeth I.

Mary, Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart). Born 8 December, 1542, died 8 February, 1587. Queen of Scotland (1542 – 1567), Forced Abdication, Imprisonment, Execution.

Diana Scultori (a.k.a Diana Mantuana & Diana Ghisi). Born 1547, died 5 April, 1612. Italian Engraver From Mantua, Italy; One of the Earliest Known Women Printmakers, Making Mostly Reproductive Engravings of Well-Known Paintings/Drawings and Ancient Roman Sculptures.

Lavinia Fontana. Born 24 August, 1552, died 11 August, 1614. Italian Mannerist Painter, Active in Bologna and Rome, Best Known for Her Successful Portraiture, but Also Worked in the Genres of Mythology and Religious Painting, Regarded as the First Female Career Artist in Western Europe.

Barbara Longhi. Born 21 September, 1552, died 23 December, 1638. Italian Painter, Much Admired in Her Lifetime as a Portraitist, Though Most of Her Portraits are Now Lost or Unattributed.

Marietta Robusti. Born 1560, died 1590. Highly Skilled Venetian Painter of the Renaissance Period, the Daughter of Tintoretto (Jacobo Robusti), Sometimes Referred to as Tintoretta.

Elizabeth Báthory (Báthori Erzsébet). Born 7 August, 1560, died 21 August, 1614. Hungarian Countess, Subject of Folklore, Alleged Serial Killer.

Esther Inglis. Born 1571, died 1624. Skilled Artisan and Miniaturist Who Possessed Several Skills in Areas Such as Calligraphy, Writing, and Embroidering; Over the Course of Her Life, She Composed Around Sixty Miniature Books That Display Her Calligraphic Skill With Paintings, Portraits, and Embroidered Covers.

Galizia (Fede Galizia). Born c. 1578, died c. 1630. Italian Painter of Still-Lifes, Portraits, and Religious Pictures, Especially Noted as a Painter of Still-Lifes of Fruit, a Genre in Which She Was One of the Earliest Practitioners in European Art.

Izumo no Okuni (出雲 阿国). Born c. 1578, died c. 1613. Actress, Shrine Maiden, Creator of Kabuki Theater (1603 – 1610), Recruited Lower-Class Women For Her Troupe, Primarily Prostitutes.

Clara Peeters. Born c. 1580s/90s, death date unknown. Flemish Still-Life Painter From Antwerp Who Worked in Both the Spanish Netherlands and Dutch Republic. Was the Best-Known Female Flemish Artist of This Era and One of the Few Women Artists Working Professionally in 17th-Century Europe, Despite Restrictions on Women's Access to Artistic Training and Membership in Guilds.

Artemisia Gentileschi (Artemisia Lomi). Born 8 July, 1593, died c. 1656. Italian Baroque Painter, Considered Among the Most Accomplished 17th-Century Artists, Making Professional Work by Age 15. In an Era When Women Had Few Chances to Pursue Artistic Training/Work as Professional Artists, She Was the First Woman to Become a Member of the Accademia di Arte del Disegno and Had an International Clientele. Much of Her Work Features Women From Myths, Allegories, and the Bible, Including Victims, Suicides, and Warriors.

Magdalena van de Passe. Born 1600, died 1638. Dutch Engraver, Member of the Van de Passe Family of Artists From Cologne, Active in the Northern Netherlands. Specialized in Landscapes and Portraits, and Trained the Polymath Anna Maria van Schurman in Engraving, One of the Few Known Early Examples of the Training of One Woman Artist by Another.

Giovanna Garzoni. Born 1600, died 1670. Italian Painter of the Baroque Period; Began Her Career Painting Religious, Mythological, and Allegorical Subjects but Gained Fame For Her Botanical Subjects Painted in Tempera and Watercolor.

Michaelina Wautier (Michaelina Woutiers). Born 1604, died 1689. Baroque Painter From the Southern Netherlands (now Belgium), Noted For the Variety of Subjects and Genres She Worked in, Unusual For Female Artists of the Time, Who Were More Often Restricted to Smaller Paintings, Generally Portraits or Still-Lifes.

Judith Leyster (Judith Jans Leyster (also Leijster)). Born in July, 1609, died February 10, 1660. Dutch Golden Age Painter of Genre Works, Portraits, and Still-Lifes. Her Work Was Highly Regarded by Her Contemporaries, but Largely Forgotten After Her Death. Her Entire Oeuvre Came to be Attributed to Frans Hals or to Her Husband, Jan Miense Molenaer. In 1893, She Was Rediscovered and Scholars Began to Attribute Her Works Correctly.

Louise Moillon. Born 1610, died 1696. French Still-Life Painter in the Baroque Era, Became Known as One of the Best Still-Life Painters of Her Time, Her Work Purchased by King Charles I of England, as Well as French Nobility.

Catharina Peeters. Born 1615, died 1676. Flemish Baroque Painter, Noted For Painting Seascapes.

Katharina Pepijn (Catharina Pepijn). Born in February, 1619, died 12 November, 1688. Flemish Painter Who Was Known For Her History Paintings and Portraits.

Josefa de Óbidos (Josefa de Ayala Figueira). Born c.  January, 1630, died 22 July, 1684. Spanish-Born Portuguese Painter. All of Her Work Was Executed in Portugal, Her Father's Native Country, Where She Lived From the Age of Four. Approximately 150 Works of Art Have Been Attributed to Her, Making Her One of the Most Prolific Baroque Artists in Portugal.

Maria van Oosterwijck (Maria van Oosterwyck). Born 20/27 August, 1630, died 1693. Dutch Golden Age Painter, Specializing in Richly-Detailed Flower Paintings and Other Still-Lifes. Despite the Fact That Her Paintings Were Highly Sought Out by Collectors (Including Royalty), She Was Denied Membership in the Painters' Guild Because Women Weren’t Allowed to Join. Stayed Single Throughout Her Life, but Raised Her Orphaned Nephew.

Johanna Vergouwen (Jeanne Vergouwen, Joanna Vergouwen). Born 1630, died 11 March, 1714. Flemish Baroque Painter, Copyist, and Art Dealer.

Mary Beale (née Cradock). Born in late March, 1633, died 8 October, 1699. English Portrait Painter and Writer, Part of a Small Band of Female Professional Artists Working in London. Her Manuscript Observations (1663), on the Materials and Techniques Employed "in Her Painting of Apricots", Though Not Printed, is the Earliest Known Instructional Text in English Written by a Female Painter.

Elisabetta Sirani. Born 8 January, 1638, died 28 August, 1665. Italian Baroque Painter and Printmaker Who Died in Unexplained Circumstances at the Age of 27. She Was One of the First Women Artists in Early Modern Bologna, and Established an Academy for Other Women Artists.

Maria Theresia van Thielen. Born 7 March, 1640, died 11 February, 1706. Flemish Baroque Painter, Known for Several Flower Pieces and Outdoor Still-Lifes Painted in the Style of Her Father, Jan Philip van Thielen.

Anna Maria van Thielen. Born 1641, death date unknown. Flemish Baroque Painter and Nun, Younger Sister of Maria Theresia, Older Sister of Fransisca Catharina.

Maria Borghese (Maria Virginia Teresa Borghese). Born 1642, died 1718. Italian Baroque Artist, Daughter of Art Collector Olimpia Aldobrandini.

Francisca Catharina van Thielen. Born 1645, death date unknown. Flemish Baroque Painter and Nun, Younger Sister of Maria Theresia and Anna Maria.

Maria Sibylla Merian. Born 2 April, 1647, died 13 January, 1717. German Entomologist, Naturalist and Scientific Illustrator, One of the Earliest European Naturalists to Document Observations About Insects Directly.

Élisabeth Sophie Chéron. Born 3 October, 1648, died 3 September, 1711. Remembered Today Primarily as a French Painter, but She Was a Renaissance Woman, Acclaimed in Her Lifetime as a Gifted Poet, Musician, Artist, and Academician.

Luisa Roldán (Luisa Ignacia Roldán, a.k.a La Roldana). Born 8 September, 1652, died 10 January, 1706. Spanish Sculptor of the Baroque Era, the Earliest Woman Sculptor Documented in Spain. Recognized in the Hispanic Society Museum For Being "One of the Few Women Artists to Have Maintained a Studio Outside the Convents in Golden Age Spain".

Rachel Ruysch. Born 3 June, 1664, died 12 October, 1750. Dutch Still-Life Painter From the Northern Netherlands. She Specialized in Flowers, Inventing Her Own Style and Achieving International Fame in Her Lifetime. Due to a Long, Successful Career That Spanned Over Six Decades, She Became the Best-Documented Woman Painter of the Dutch Golden Age.

Anne, Queen of Great Britain. Born 6 February, 1665, died 1 August, 1714. Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1702 – 1707), First Queen of Great Britain and Ireland (1707 – 1714).

Isabel de Cisneros (Isabel de Santiago). Born 1666, died c. 1714. Criollo Colonial Painter Born in the Colony of Quito (Ecuador), Specialized in Oil Paintings of the Childhood of the Virgin and of the Baby Jesus, Adorned With Flowers and Animals.

Catherine the Great (Catherine II, ��катерина Алексеевна (Yekaterina Alekseyevna), born Princess Sophie Augusta Frederica von Anhalt-Zerbst). Born 2 May, 1729, died 17 November, 1796. Reigning Empress of Russia (1762 – 1796), Came to Power After Overthrowing Her Husband, Peter III. Under Her Long Reign, Russia Experienced a Renaissance of Culture and Sciences.

Marianne Mozart (Maria Anna Walburga Ignatia Mozart). Born 30 July, 1751, died 29 October, 1829. Musician (c. 1759 – 1769), Music Teacher (1772 – 1829), Sister of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

Marie Antoinette (Maria Antonia). Born 2 November, 1755, died 16 October, 1793. Last Queen of France (1774 – 1792), Bad Reputation, Executed by Guillotine.

Jane Austen. Born 16 December, 1775, died 18 July, 1817. Novelist, Author of Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), etc, Known For Her Subtle Criticism of the Nobility of the Time.

Mary Shelley (Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, née Godwin). Born 30 August, 1797, died 1 February 1851. English Novelist, Author of Frankenstein (1818).

Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Born 6 March, 1806, died 29 June, 1861. Influential Poet, Author of How Do I Love Thee (Sonnet 43, 1845) and Aurora Leigh (1856).

Ada Lovelace (Augusta Ada King, née Byron, Countess of Lovelace). Born 10 December, 1815, died 27 November, 1852. Mathematician, Writer, First to Think of Other Uses for Computing Besides Mathematical Calculations.

Victoria I (Alexandrina Victoria). Born 24 May, 1819, died 22 January, 1901. Queen of England (1837 – 1901), Longest Reign of All Predecessors.

Florence Nightingale. Born May 12, 1820, died August 13, 1910. Pioneered Modern Nursing/Statistics, Social Reformer (~1853 – ?).

Emily Dickinson (Emily Elizabeth Dickinson). Born December 10, 1830, died May 15, 1886. Poet, Little-Known During Her Lifetime, Most Works Published Posthumously and Heavily Edited, Later Regarded as One of the Most Important Figures In American Poetry.

Louisa May Alcott. Born November 29, 1832, died March 6, 1888. Novelist, Short Story Writer, Poet, Author of Little Women (1868), Abolitionist, Feminist, Active in Temperance and Women’s Suffrage Movements.

Mademoiselle Abomah (Ella Williams). Born October, 1865, death date unknown (after 1920s). African-American Performer, Giantess Who Grew to Eight Feet Tall.

Anna Connelly. Born September 23, 1868, died ~1969. Inventor of the First Fire Escape (1887), One of the First Women to Patent an Invention Without Help From a Man.

Emma Goldman. Born June 27, 1869, died May 14, 1940. Anarchist Revolutionary, Political Activist, Writer, Played a Pivotal Role in Development of Anarchist Philosophy in North America and Europe In the First Half of the 20th Century.

Ella Ewing, “The Missouri Giantess” (Ella Katherine Ewing). Born March 9, 1872, died January 10, 1913. Giantess, Performer, Considered the World’s Tallest Woman of Her Era.

Helen Keller (Helen Adams Keller). Born June 27, 1880, died June 1, 1968. Blind/Deaf, Disability Rights/etc. Activist (1909 – ?), Author (1903 – ?).

Agatha Christie (Dame Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie, Lady Mallowan, DBE (née Miller)). Born 15 September, 1890, died 12 January, 1976. English Writer, Known For Her 66 Detective Novels and 14 Short Story Collections. Dubbed “The Queen of Crime”.

Amelia Earhart (Amelia Mary Earhart). Born July 24, 1897, died January 5, 1939 (in absentia). First Solo Female Pilot (1932), Women's Rights Activist, Lost at Sea (1937).

Ebony and Ivory (Margaret Patrick and Ruth Eisenburg). Born 1902 (Eisenburg)/1913 (Patrick), died 1996 (Eisenburg)/1994 (Patrick). Elderly Interracial Piano Duo (1983 – 1988), Disabled on Opposite Sides.

Virginia Hall (Virginia Hall Goillot, Codenamed Marie and Diane, Known as “Artemis” and ”The Limping Lady” by the Germans). Born April 6, 1906, died July 8, 1982. WWII-Era Intelligence Agent (1940 – 1945), Considered “The Most Dangerous of All Allied Spies” by the Gestapo, Later Joined the CIA (1947 – 1966), Had Prosthetic Leg.

Li Zhen (李贞) (Li Danmeizi (旦妹子)). Born February, 1908, died March 11, 1990. Revolutionary (1927 – ?), First Female General of the People’s Liberation Army (1955 – ?).

Mother Teresa (Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu)). Born 26 August, 1910, died 5 September, 1997. Albanian-Indian Catholic Nun, Founder of the Missionaries of Charity.

Rosa Parks (Rosa Louise McCauley Parks). Born February 4, 1913, died October 24, 2005. Civil Rights Activist (1943 – ?), Played a Pivotal Role in the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955), Became Symbol of Resistance to Racial Segregation.

Judy Garland (Frances Ethel Gumm). Born June 10, 1922, died June 22, 1969. Award-Winning Singer/Actress (1924 – 1969), Starred in The Wizard of Oz (1939), A Star Is Born (1954), etc.

Stephanie Kwolek (Stephanie Louise Kwolek). Born July 31, 1923, died June 18, 2014. Award-Winning Chemist, Inventor of Kevlar (1965).

Marilyn Monroe (Norma Jeane Mortenson). Born June 1, 1926, died August 4, 1962. Award-Winning Actress (1945 – 1961), Pop/Sex Icon of Hollywood’s Golden Age, Starred in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953), Some Like It Hot (1959), etc.

Ursula K. Le Guin (Ursula Kroeber Le Guin). Born October 21, 1929, died January 22, 2018. American Novelist, Best Known For Her Works of Speculative Fiction, Author of the Earthsea Series (1964 – 2018), The Left Hand of Darkness (1969), The Dispossessed (1974), etc.

Aretha Franklin (Aretha Louise Franklin). Born March 25, 1942, died August 16, 2018. Award-Winning Gospel/Rock/RnB Singer, Songwriter, Pianist, Civil Rights Activist, Record Producer (1954 – 2017).

Liza Minnelli (Liza May Minelli). Born March 12, 1946, Still Living. Award-Winning Actress, Singer, Dancer, and Choreographer (1961 – present), Daughter of Judy Garland.

Afeni Shakur (Afeni Shakur Davis, Born Alice Faye Williams). Born January 10, 1947, died May 2, 2016. American Political Activist, Member of the Black Panther Party (1968 – 1971), Mother of Tupac Shakur.

Assata Shakur (Assata Olugbala Shakur (Born JoAnne Deborah Byron), A.k.a. Joanne Chesimard). Born July 16, 1947, Still Living. American Political Activist, Convicted of Murder, Former Member of the Black Liberation Army, One of the FBI's "Most Wanted Terrorists", Friend of Afeni Shakur & Mutulu Shakur, Often Described as Their Son Tupac Shakur's "Godmother" or "Step-Aunt", Currently a Fugitive, in Asylum in Cuba.

(P.S. if I got anything wrong, feel free to correct me.)

#women in history #historical figures #important people #list #help #women's rights #activist #activism #activists #inventors #pilot #pilots #aviation #queens #royalty #science #scientists #inventions #kevlar #Cleopatra #ancient egypt #egypt #Anna Connelly #Helen Keller #Amelia Earhart #female pilot #Pioneer #pioneers #lost at sea #Rosa Parks

[egyptologylessons]

A halo (also known as a nimbus, aureole, glory, or gloriole) is a crown of light rays, circle or disk of light that surrounds a person in art. It has been used in the iconography of many religions to indicate holy or sacred figures, and has at various periods also been used in images of rulers and heroes. In the religious art of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism among other religions, sacred persons may be depicted with a halo in the form of a circular glow, or flames in Asian art, around the head or around the whole body. 📸 5. Standing Buddha with a halo, 1st–2nd century AD (or earlier), Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. 📸 6. Muhammad (cropped from this image) leads Abraham, Moses, Jesus and others in prayer. Persian miniature 📸 7. Apollo with a radiant halo in a Roman floor mosaic (late 2nd century, El Djem, Tunisia) 📸 8. The Mughal emperor Jahangir often had himself depicted with a halo of unprecedented size. c. 1620 📸 9. Ra with solar disc, before 1235 BC, Tomb of Nefertari - Valley of the Queens 𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬𓋹𓎬 @egyptologylessons 𓋹𓊽𓋴𓆖𓎛𓇳𓎛 © (photos and description - Wikipedia) 𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁𓊁 #Ancientegypt #ägypten #egyptianhistory #egyptology #hieroglyphs #egypte #egitto #埃及 #مصر #egipto #이집트 #halo #ra #jesus #buddha #persianart #roman #greek #apollo https://www.instagram.com/p/CiZ3nPruhYe/?igshid=NGJjMDIxMWI=

#ancientegypt #ägypten #egyptianhistory #egyptology #hieroglyphs #egypte #egitto #埃及 #مصر #egipto #이집트 #halo #ra #jesus #buddha #persianart #roman #greek #apollo

[paganimagevault]

Aphrodite Epitragia 1st C. BCE - 2nd C. CE. Agate onyx cameo. National Archeological Museum of Naples. Inv.-Nr. 25845/13. Georg Lippold, Gemmen und Kameen, Stuttgart 1922, plate 24, 5.

"Often, when one finds this epithet of Aphrodite, it is in reference to the many iconographical depictions of her riding a goat. Such depictions seem to appear towards the end of the Classical era and refer to her role as Pandemos, especially in Athens, which Plutarch explains in Theseus, 18:

“When the lot was cast, Theseus took those upon whom it fell from the prytaneium and went to the Delphinium, where he dedicated to Apollo in their behalf his suppliant’s badge. This was a bough from the sacred olive-tree, wreathed with white wool. Having made his vows and prayers, he went down to the sea on the sixth day of the month Munychion, on which day even now the Athenians still send their maidens to the Delphinium to propitiate the God. And it is reported that the God at Delphi commanded him in an oracle to make Aphrodite his guide, and invite her to attend him on his journey, and that as he sacrificed the usual she-goat to her by the sea-shore, it became a he-goat (‘tragos’) all at once, for which reason the Goddess has the surname Epitragia.” (trans. Bernadotte Perrin)

At first glance, it is hard to see how Aphrodite Epitragia relates to Aphrodite Pandemos or even the Aphrodisia. According to Plutarch, Aphrodite Epitragia places herself as Theseus’ personal guide in the journey that would lead him to accomplish the synoikismos (lit. “coming together” of cities) and establish the cult of Aphrodite Pandemos, which is at the heart of the Aphrodisia.

While the depictions of Aphrodite riding a goat appear quite early on in Athenian history, the epithet “epitragia” only appears in later sources, one being the quote cited above from Plutarch, and the other being an inscription on one of the seats in the Theater of Dionysus, also dated from the 2nd century AD, probably the seat reserved for the clergy in charge of Aphrodite’s cult under this epithet.

And this is, honestly, quite curious. If Aphrodite riding a goat was, until the turn of the millennium, mostly an iconographical and artistic depiction referring to her role as Pandemos, it is surprising to see that the cult of Aphrodite Epitragia had a clergy, as attested by the presence of the seat in the theater, and it mostly raises the question of the purpose of the cult. Was it different from the cult of Aphrodite Pandemos? If that was the case, how so? Was the cult of Aphrodite Epitragia always there despite the fact we have no trace of it before the 2nd century AD? etc.

In L’Aphrodite grecque, V. Pirenne-Delforge interprets Epitragia as a guide in the sexual coming of age of Theseus. In the same manner that another legend associates the cult of Aphrodite Pandemos as a patron the sexuality of young people through the opening of a brothel under Solon (6th century BC), the Thesean version would represent Aphrodite foreshadowing the metamorphosis of Theseus from a child to a man with the miraculous change from a she-goat to a he-goat. V. Pirenne-Delforge also points out that the image of Aphrodite riding a goat is not exclusively used to refer to Pandemos, as it is the case on ex-votos where she is represented in her Ourania aspects as well.

Still according to the same author, both the epithet and the iconographical trope seem to have been more akin to a protection than an actual representation of the Goddess, popularized by the sculpture of Scopas in Elis, which represented Aphrodite in this manner (unfortunately lost to us). This conclusion can only be reevaluated if we find depictions of Aphrodite Epitragia that were made before the 4th century BC."

-taken from thegrapeandthefig wordpress & Plutarch's Life of Theseus

#aphrodite #venus #cupid #pagan #paganism #ancient greece #ancient rome #antiquities #sculpture #literature #european art #antiquity #ancient history #art #museums

[legend-collection]

Echidna

In Greek mythology, Echidna was a monster, half-woman and half-snake, who lived alone in a cave. She was the mate of the fearsome monster Typhon and was the mother of many of the most famous monsters of Greek myth. Echidna's family tree varies by author. The oldest genealogy relating to Echidna, Hesiod's Theogony (c. 8th – 7th century BC), is unclear on several points. According to Hesiod, Echidna was born to a "she" who was probably meant by Hesiod to be the sea goddess Ceto, making Echidna's likely father the sea god Phorcys; however the "she" might instead refer to the Oceanid Callirhoe, which would make Medusa's offspring Chrysaor the father of Echidna. The mythographer Pherecydes of Athens (5th century BC) has Echidna as the daughter of Phorcys, without naming a mother.

Other authors give Echidna other parents. According to the geographer Pausanias (2nd century AD), Epimenides (7th or 6th century BC) had Echidna as the daughter of the Oceanid Styx (goddess of the river Styx) and one Peiras (otherwise unknown to Pausanias), while according to the mythographer Apollodorus (1st or 2nd century AD), Echidna was the daughter of Tartarus and Gaia. In one account, from the Orphic tradition, Echidna was the daughter of Phanes (the Orphic father of all gods).

Hesiod's Echidna was half beautiful maiden and half fearsome snake. Hesiod described "the goddess fierce Echidna" as a flesh eating "monster, irresistible", who was like neither "mortal men" nor "the undying gods", but was "half a nymph with glancing eyes and fair cheeks, and half again a huge snake, great and awful, with speckled skin", who "dies not nor grows old all her days." Hesiod's apparent association of the eating of raw flesh with Echidna's snake half suggests that he may have supposed that Echidna's snake half ended in a snake-head. Aristophanes (late 5th century BC), who makes her a denizen of the underworld, gives Echidna a hundred heads (presumably snake heads), matching the hundred snake heads Hesiod says her mate Typhon had.

In the Orphic account (mentioned above), Echidna is described as having the head of a beautiful woman with long hair and a serpent's body from the neck down. Nonnus, in his Dionysiaca, describes Echidna as being "hideous" with "horrible poison".

According to Hesiod's Theogony, the "terrible" and "lawless" Typhon "was joined in love to [Echidna], the maid with glancing eyes" and she bore "fierce offspring". First there was Orthrus, the two-headed dog who guarded the Cattle of Geryon, second Cerberus, the multiheaded dog who guarded the gates of Hades, and third the Lernaean Hydra, the many-headed serpent who, when one of its heads was cut off, grew it back. The Theogony mentions a second ambiguous “she” as the mother of the Chimera (a fire-breathing beast that was part lion, part goat, and had a snake-headed tail) which may refer to Echidna, though possibly the Hydra or even Ceto was meant instead. Hesiod next names two more descendants of Echidna, the Sphinx, a monster with the head of a woman and the body of a winged lion, and the Nemean lion, killed by Heracles as his first labor. According to Hesiod, these two were the offspring of Echidna's son Orthrus and another ambiguous "she", read variously as the Chimera, Echidna herself, or again even Ceto. In any case, the lyric poet Lasus of Hermione (6th century BC) has Echidna and Typhon as the parents of the Sphinx, while the playwright Euripides (5th century BC), has Echidna as her mother, without mentioning a father. While mentioning Cerberus and "other monsters" as being the offspring of Echidna and Typhon, the mythographer Acusilaus (6th century BC) adds the Caucasian Eagle that ate the liver of Prometheus. Pherecydes also names Prometheus' eagle, and adds Ladon (though Pherecydes does not use this name), the dragon that guarded the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides (according to Hesiod, the offspring of Ceto and Phorcys).

Later authors mostly retain these offspring of Echidna and Typhon while adding others. Apollodorus, in addition to naming as their offspring Orthrus, the Chimera (citing Hesiod as his source), the Sphinx, the Caucasian Eagle, Ladon, and probably the Nemean lion (only Typhon is named), also adds the Crommyonian Sow, killed by the hero Theseus (unmentioned by Hesiod). Hyginus in his list of offspring of Echidna (all by Typhon), retains from the above Cerberus, the Chimera, the Sphinx, the Hydra and Ladon, and adds "Gorgon" (by which Hyginus means the mother of Medusa, whereas Hesiod's three Gorgons, of which Medusa was one, were the daughters of Ceto and Phorcys), the Colchian dragon that guarded the Golden Fleece and Scylla.

Nonnus makes Echidna the mother of an unnamed, venom-spitting, "huge" son, with "snaky" feet, an ally of Cronus in his war with Zeus, who was killed by Ares. The Harpies, in Hesiod the daughters of Thaumas and the Oceanid Electra, in one source, are said to be the daughters of Typhon, and so perhaps were also considered to be the daughters of Echidna. Likewise, the sea serpents which attacked the Trojan priest Laocoön during the Trojan War, which are called by Quintus Smyrnaeus "fearful monsters of the deadly brood of Typhon", may also have been considered Echidna's offspring. Echidna is sometimes identified with the Viper who was the mother by Heracles of Scythes, an eponymous king of the Scythians, along with his brothers Agathyrsus ("much raging") and Gelonus. According to Hesiod, Echidna was born in a cave and apparently lived alone (in that same cave, or perhaps another), as Hesiod describes it, "beneath the secret parts of the holy earth … deep down under a hollow rock far from the deathless gods and mortal men", a place appointed by the gods, where she "keeps guard in Arima". (Though Hesiod here may possibly be referring to Echidna's mother Ceto's home cave instead). It was perhaps from this same cave that Echidna used to "carry off passers-by".

Hesiod locates Echidna's cave in Arima. Presumably, this is the same place where, in Homer's Iliad, Zeus, with his thunderbolts, lashes the land about Echidna's mate Typhon, described as the land of the Arimoi, "where men say is the couch [bed] of Typhoeus", Typhoeus being another name for Typhon. But neither Homer nor Hesiod say anything more about where this Arima might be. The question of whether an historical place was meant, and its possible location, has been since ancient times the subject of speculation and debate.

The geographer Strabo (c. 20 AD) discusses the question in some detail. Several locales, Cilicia, Syria, Lydia, and the Island of Pithecussae (modern Ischia), each associated with Typhon in various ways, are given by Strabo as possible locations for Hesiod's "Arima" (or Homer's "Arimoi").

The region in the vicinity of the ancient Cilician coastal city of Corycus (modern Kızkalesi, Turkey) is often associated with Typhon's birth. The poet Pindar (c. 470 BC), who has Typhon born in Cilicia, and nurtured in "the famous Cilician cave" an apparent allusion to the Corycian cave, also has Zeus slaying Typhon "among the Arimoi". The fourth-century BC historian Callisthenes, located the Arimoi and the Arima mountains in Cilicia, near the Calycadnus river, the Corycian cave and the Sarpedon promontory. The b scholia to Iliad 2.783, preserving a possible Orphic tradition, has Typhon born "under Arimon in Cilicia", and Nonnus mentions Typhon's "bloodstained cave of Arima" in Cilicia.

Just across the Gulf of Issus from Corycus, in ancient Syria, was Mount Kasios (modern Jebel Aqra in Turkey) and the Orontes River, said to be the site of the battle of Typhon and Zeus. According to Strabo, the historian Posidonius identified the Arimoi with the Aramaeans of Syria.

According to some, Arima was instead located in a volcanic plain on the upper Gediz River called the Catacecaumene ("Burnt Land"), situated between the ancient kingdoms of Lydia, Mysia and Phrygia, near Mount Tmolus (modern Bozdağ) and Sardis, the ancient capital of Lydia. According to Strabo, some placed the Arimoi and the battle between Typhon and Zeus at Catacecaumene, while Xanthus of Lydia added that "a certain Arimus" ruled there. Strabo also tells us that, according to "some", Homer's "couch of Typhon" (and hence the Arimoi) was located "in a wooded place, in the fertile land of Hyde", with Hyde being another name for Sardis (or its acropolis), and that Demetrius of Scepsis thought that the Arimoi were most plausibly located "in the Catacecaumene country in Mysia". The third-century BC poet Lycophron placed Echidna's lair in this region.

Another place mentioned by Strabo as being associated with Arima is the volcanic island of Pithecussae, off the coast of ancient Cumae in Italy. According to Pherecydes of Athens, Typhon fled to Pithecussae during his battle with Zeus and, according to Pindar, Typhon lay buried beneath the island. Strabo reports the "myth" that when Typhon "turns his body the flames and the waters, and sometimes even small islands containing boiling water, spout forth." The connection to Arima comes from the island's Greek name Pithecussae, which derives from the Greek word for monkey, and, according to Strabo, residents of the island said that "arimoi" was also the Etruscan word for monkeys.

Although for Hesiod Echidna was immortal and ageless, according to Apollodorus Echidna continued to prey on the unfortunate "passers-by" until she was finally killed, while she slept, by Argus Panoptes, the hundred-eyed giant who served Hera.

From the fifth century BC historian Herodotus, we learn of a creature who, though Herodotus does not name as Echidna, is called an echidna ("she-viper") and resembles the Hesiodic Echidna in several respects. She was half woman half snake, lived in a cave, and was known as a mother figure, in this case, as the progenitor of the Scythians (rather than of monsters).

According to Herodotus, Greeks living in Pontus, a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, told a story of an encounter between Heracles and this snaky creature. Heracles was driving the cattle of Geryones through what would later become Scythia, when one morning he awoke and discovered that his horses had disappeared. While searching for them, he "found in a cave a creature of double form that was half maiden and half serpent; above the buttocks she was a woman, below them a snake." She had the horses and promised to return them if Heracles would have sex with her. Heracles agreed and she had three sons by him: Agathyrsus, Gelonus and Scythes. She asked Heracles what she should do with his sons: "shall I keep them here (since I am queen of this country), or shall I send them away to you?" And Heracles gave her a bow and belt, and told her, that when the boys were grown, whichever would draw the bow and wear the belt, keep him and banish the others. The youngest son Scythes fulfilled the requirements and became the founder and eponym of the Scythians.

A possibly related creature to the Hesiodic Echidna is the "Viper" (Echidna) cast into an abyss, by Philip the Apostle, in the apocryphal Acts of Philip. Called a "she dragon" (drakaina) and "the mother of the serpents", this Echidna ruled over many other monstrous dragons and snakes, and lived in a gated temple at Hierapolis, where she was worshipped by the people of that land. She, along with her temple and priests, was swallowed up by a hole in the ground that opened beneath her, as the result of Philip's curse.

Echidna was perhaps associated with the monster killed by Apollo at Delphi. Though that monster is usually said to be the male serpent Python, in the oldest account of this story, the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, the god kills a nameless she-serpent (drakaina), subsequently called Delphyne, who had been Typhon's foster-mother. Echidna and Delphyne share several similarities. Both were half-maid and half-snake, and both were a "plague" (πῆμα) to men. And both were intimately connected to Typhon, and associated with the Corycian cave. No certain ancient depictions of Echidna survive. According to Pausanias, Echidna was depicted, along with Typhon, on the sixth century BC Doric-Ionic temple complex at Amyclae known as the throne of Apollo, designed by Bathycles of Magnesia. Pausanias identifies two standing figures on the left as Echidna and Typhon, with Tritons standing on the right, with no other details concerning these figures given.

#echidna #greece #mediterranean

[myeba02]

#SOUL

SOUL

✓ALEXIS c.375-275 BC

Have richness of soul; as for wealth, it is but an idea, a screen, for real life.

✓ANARCHASIS c.600 BC

The body is an instrument of the soul, the soul a gift of God.

(Plutarch, Dinner of the Seven Wise Men)

✓ARISTOTLE 384-322 BC :

_Wisdom, excelence, and pleasure are in the soul, and some or all of these seem to all to be the end.

_ Eudemian Ethics

_It's hard to be truly great-souled, for greatness of soul is impossible without moral mobility.

_It is manifest that it is natural and expedient for the body to be governed by the soul and for the emotional part to be governed by the intellect.

_What is a friend? A single soul dwelling in two bodies.

✓DEMOCRITUS c.460-c.370 BC :

_Medicine heals diseases of the body, wisdom frees the soul from passions.

_Violent desire for one thing blinds the soul to everything else.

_Happiness, like unhappiness, is a property of the soul.

✓DIDYMUS 1st Century AD :

_Every action is some expression of the soul.

✓EPICTETUS c.50-c.120 AD :

_A soul attended by virtue is an overflowing spring, whose water is pure and undisturbed, fresh and wholesome, liberal and abundant, harmless and indestructible. Epictetus c. 50-c.120 AD.

✓HERACLITUS c. 540-c.480 BC.

_The limits of the soul you will not discover, not even if you travel every road; for its depth is limitly.

_It is hard to fight against impulse; whatever it wishes, it buys at the expenses of the soul.

✓HIERAX 2nd/3rd century AD Platonist Philosopher

_Every action originates in the soul; the body is the vehicle.

✓HIPPOCRATES c. 460-c.377 BC:

_Male and female have the power to fuse into one because soul is the same in all living creatures, although the body of each is different.

✓HOMER 8th Century BC Epic Poet

_etAh then, 'tis true that we survive in Hades, our soul and phantom, but no intellect wthal. Iliad

_The gods will send you off to the Elysian Fields,; no snow, no winter there, no rain; but at all times the Ocean sends up winds, sweet western winds, bearing refreshment for the souls of men. Odyssey

✓MARCUS AURELIUS 121-180 AD :

_Nowhere can man find a quieter or more untroubled retreat than in his own soul.

[boozehouse]

"LIQUORS"

Liquor (or a spirit) is an alcoholic drink produced by distillation of grains, fruits, vegetables, or sugar, that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation. Other terms for liquor include: spirit drink, distilled beverage or hard liquor. The distillation process concentrates the liquid to increase its alcohol by volume. As liquors contain significantly more alcohol (ethanol) than other alcoholic drinks, they are considered “harder” — in North America, the term hard liquor is sometimes used to distinguish distilled alcoholic drinks from non-distilled ones, whereas the term spirits are used in the UK. The terms “hard liquor” and “hard alcohol” are often differentiated but are equivalent under US law; the term ethanol itself has no significance under US law.

Liquor is a distilled beverage. It is typically consumed for the psychoactive effects of alcohol. It may be consumed on its own (“neat”), typically in small amounts. In undiluted form, distilled beverages are often slightly sweet, bitter and impart a burning mouthfeel, with a strong odour from the alcohol; the exact flavour varies between different varieties of liquor and impurities they impart. Liquor is also frequently enjoyed in diluted form as flavoured liquor or as part of mixed drinks. Acute consumption of liquor causes severe alcohol intoxication, known as alcohol poisoning which can be fatal. Consistent consumption of liquor over time correlates with health problems such as poor nutrition and malnutrition, mental health issues including depression and addiction to other substances such as toxic chemicals.

The term “spirit” (singular and used without the additional term “drink”) refers to liquor that is clearly a spirit. Fruit brandy, for example, is also known as fruit spirit. Liquor bottled with added sugar and added flavourings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, and American schnapps, are known instead as liqueurs. Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30%.

Beer and wine, which are not distilled, are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20% ABV, as most yeasts cannot metabolise when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, fermentation ceases at that point.

Liquor is a term for an intoxicating liquid that is reportedly intoxicating. Liquor can also be the name of an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain and water, wine, or beer. The most common type of liquor is naturally occurring fermented alcohol, which includes whiskey and other distilled beverages.

Early evidence of distillation comes from Akkadian tablets dated c. 1200 BC describing perfumery operations, providing textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia. Early evidence of distillation also comes from alchemists working in Alexandria, Roman Egypt, in the 1st century. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias. Alchemists in Roman Egypt were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century.

Glenfiddich 21-Year-Old Reserve is a Speyside whisky that has been aged for 21 years in American oak barrels which have previously held bourbon and other spirits. This gives the whisky an overall sweetness and fruity aroma. The rich colour of this wine-coloured whisky is amber with ruby highlights. It has a soft, sweet fruit and vanilla aroma, hints of spices and dried fruits on the nose with notes of vanilla, sherry wood, muscatel raisins, cocoa powder on the palate. On reflection water tones out a lot of these flavours but this is one of our favourites.”

If you’re a fan of peated whiskies, then Lowland is going to be your favourite whisky region. Most of the distilleries in this area do only small amounts of pleating themselves, creating single malt’s flavours that are much more mellow than other parts of Scotland. The best part is that they retail at a discount price so you can finally afford to experiment with some peat!

Campbeltown is home to some of the best distilleries Scotland has to offer. Springbank is one of them, and their Spring Bank 21-year-old is a perfect example. With Malt Whisky critics claiming it has an extremely smooth taste and smokiness which comes from the peat used in its distillation, along with a hint of sweet caramel that brings it all together perfectly.

Talisker 8-Year-Old Special Release 2020 is a mellow mixture of malt, barley, and yeast flavours that make a smooth transition into the mouth. There is an emphasis on peat smoke through the nose with good spice notes and sweet malty flavours. The finish is very long with the smoke coming out in overtones throughout this finish. This is an excellent example of good quality scotch whiskey made in the distillery’s highest category of Islay cask strength.

#boozehouse #boozehouseaustralia #champagne #arbeaumontbrutreservenv #arbeaumont #arbeaumontchampagne #southaustralia #southaustraliantourism #australianowned #epitomeofelegance

[thejim07]

Diana of Versailles

The Diana of Versailles or Artemis, Goddess of the Hunt, is a slightly over-lifesize marble statue of the Roman goddess Diana (Greek: Artemis) with a deer. It is a partially restored Roman copy (1st or 2nd century AD) of a lost Greek bronze original attributed to Leochares, c. 325 BC. Probably discovered in the region of Nemi, Italy, the statue was donated in 1556 by Pope Paul IV to Henry II of France. In 1602, Barthélemy Prieur restored it and added the deer, thus transforming the statue into Diana the Huntress. During the reign of Louis XIV, the group was installed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, from which it takes its current name of "Diana of Versailles". In 1798, the statue was transferred to the Louvre Palace in Paris, where it still stands. I made this statue from a free 3D model I found on the Internet. I reduced significantly the number of faces, built an UV map, normal map and other textures.

Happy Simming! Jim

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#thejim07 #ts4 #sims4 #s4cc #ts4cc #statue #diana #artemis

[saint-rouge]

Here’s your reminder that the classical world was not white, but diverse. The classical world and the study of it belongs to everyone. 

Sources below the cut

Boy with toiletry object, number 32 in the Musei Vaticani Galleria dei Candelabri, 2nd C. AD from an original of the 3rd C. BC.

High-Handled Drinking Cup (Kantharos) in the Form of Two Heads, about 510–480 B.C., Greece, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Bronze statuette of an African (known as Ethiopian) youth, The Met, 3rd-2nd C. B.C., Greece

Head of a Man with Tight, Curly Hair, Brooklyn Museum, Late 2nd C. B.C., Turkey. 

Pitcher (Oinochoe) in the Form of the Head of an African,  in the Athenian Vases (Gallery 103) at the Getty Villa, about 510 B.C., Greece

Portrait Head of an African Child, A.D. 150–200, Italy, Getty Villa

A bust of a young African boy, 1st Century B.C., Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe Hamburg

Black youth with hands bound behind his back. Found in the Fayum, near Memphis, Egypt, bronze, 2nd–1st century BC. Louvre, Paris.

Young Slave, Late 2nd-early 3rd century AD, Turkey. Louvre, Paris. 

#classics #dark academia #classical studies #black lives matter #blm #classics student

[blueiskewl]

Statue of Apollo 'Lizard Killer' Found at Etruscan and Roman Spa

Archaeologists have found a marble statue of Apollo Sauroctonos, also known as the “Lizard Killer”, during excavations of an Etruscan and Roman spa at San Casciano dei Bagni in Tuscany.

The spa is fed by geothermal springs, which the Etruscans used to supply water at a mean temperature of 42 °C (108 °F) to the complex of Balnea Clusinae.

According to legend, the site was founded by Porsenna, an Etruscan king of Chiusi, although archaeologists suggest that the complex was built by the Etruscans in the third century BC.

During the Roman period, the spa became a popular attraction for the therapeutic benefits, with notable figures such as Caesar Augustus being a frequent visitor.

Archaeologists have found fragments of a life-sized Apollo Sauroctonos statue on the edge of the Great Bath, which are Roman copies of a bronze statue created by the Greek sculptor Praxiteles, the most renowned of the Attica sculptors of the 4th century BC.

Example copies generally date from the 1st to 2nd century AD and depict Apollo in his youth about to catch a lizard climbing up a tree. The Roman poet, Martial, wrote an epigram about the Apollo Sauroctonos statues “Spare the lizard, treacherous boy, creeping toward you; it desires to perish by your hands.”

Apollo, revered as the deity associated with healing and ailments, received votive offerings from petitioners seeking remedies for their afflictions. Additionally, the depiction of Apollo hunting a lizard can be associated with ophthalmology, as lizards were considered a key ingredient for curing eye complaints.

Excavations also uncovered a travertine votive altar with a bilingual inscription in Latin and Etruscan from the 1st century AD, indicating the ongoing influence of Etruscan culture well into the Roman Imperial Era.

By Mark Milligan.

#Statue of Apollo 'Lizard Killer' Found at Etruscan and Roman Spa #San Casciano dei Bagni in Tuscany #statue #sculpture #ancient artifacts #archeology #archeolgst #history #history news #ancient history #ancient culture #ancient civilizations #roman history #roman empire #roman art #ancient art

[thegrapeandthefig]

The Werewolves of Arcadia

This is my contribution to @adri-le-chat 's Halloween "Haunting Pagan Lore" event. As you can see from the title, I've chosen a classic of horror and folklore tales for which many have forgotten the ancient origins. This will be long, so let's get into it.

The myth of King Lycaon While the earliest known example of man-to-wolf shifting dates back to the Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2100 BC), the Greek case is considered the second oldest, and the one scholars consider as the root of werewolf belief in Europe, as the myth got carried over to the Romans. However, one should note that lycanthropy and human-to-animal transformation beliefs also arose independently in other cultures around the world.

In Greece, the first werewolf is King Lycaon of Arcadia. The story is said to go this way, though with several variants: King Lycaon ruled over the region of Arcadia, Pan's homeland. A wild, lush and mountainous region of Greece. Lycaon had several children, mainly Kallisto, Keteus and Nyktimos. After seducing Kallisto, Zeus is invited to a feast by Lycaon. The issue is, Lycaon serves him human flesh:

"After Zeus had seduced Kallisto, Lykaon, pretending not to know of the matter, entertained Zeus, as Hesiod says, and set before him on the table the babe which he had cut up.”

- Hesiod, Astronomica Fragment 3 (from Comm. Supplem. on Aratus)

"Two lesser known Athenian playwrights, Xenokles the Elder and Astydamas the Younger, produced plays entitled Lykaon. Presumably these told the story of the sacrifice of the child."

- Xenocles the Elder & Astydamas the Younger, Lycaon (lost plays) (c. 5th to 4th BC.)

The general idea is that Zeus is deeply offended by the act and turns King Lycaon into a wolf. However, there are many versions to the myth. Pausanias, in the 2nd century AD, explains it this way:

" Lykaon brought a human baby to the altar of Zeus Lykaios, and sacrificed it, pouring out its blood upon the altar, and according to the legend immediately after the sacrifice he was changed from a man to a wolf (lykos) . . . All through the ages, many events that have occurred in the past, and even some that occur to-day, have been generally discredited because of the lies built up on a foundation of fact. It is said, for instance, that ever since the time of Lykaon a man has changed into a wolf at the sacrifice to Zeus Lykaios, but that the change is not for life; if, when he is a wolf, he abstains from human flesh, after nine years he becomes a man again, but if he tastes human flesh he remains a beast for ever."

- Pausanias, Description of Greece 8. 2. 1 - 6

Ovid, when rewritting the myth in the 1st century AD, decided to turn the narrative to Lycaon doubting the divinity of Zeus when the god visited Arcadia. In order to test Zeus’s divinity, Lycaon attempts to feed him cooked human flesh and have him assassinated in the night. When Zeus realizes what Lycaon is doing, Lycaon tries to flee in fear. But as he runs into the fields of Arcadia, Lycaon is transformed into a wolf.

The cult of Zeus Lykaios

The transformation of King Lycaon is a punishment for human sacrifice and cannibalism, sometimes permanent or, as we saw above, for a certain amount of time under the condition of not eating human flesh.

The myth is said to have inspired the cult of Zeus Lykaios in Arcadia (or perhaps the opposite), for which, human sacrifices have been rumored to occur. The sanctuary of Zeus Lykaios was on one of the three crests of Mt. Lykaion, where the festival of the Lykaia was celebrated approximately once every four years. We owe the earliest reference to human sacrifices on this mountain to Plato:

"What then is the beginning of the transformation from protector to tyrant? Is it not clearly when the protector begins to do the same as the man in the story which is told concerning the sanctuary of Zeus Lykaios in Arcadia?’ ‘What story?’ he said. ‘How the man who has tasted of the piece of human entrails—one of these having been cut up along with the entrails of the other victims—it is necessary for this man to be turned into a wolf. Or haven’t you heard the story?’ ‘I have." -Plato, Republic 8, 565D–E

Pausanias, who visited the location in the 2nd century AD, also mentions the story:

“For they say that after Lycaon someone would always be turned from a man into a wolf at the sacrifice of Zeus Lykaios, but that he would not become a wolf for all his life. Rather, if while he was a wolf he refrained from human flesh, they say that afterwards in the tenth year he turned back from a wolf into a man. But if he had tasted human flesh he remained a beast forever.” 

-Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.2.6

Later, he goes on to mention the sacrifices are still performed on the moutain, subtly implying that he thinks those are human sacrifices:

"they sacrifice in secret; I did not wish to inquire further into the details of the sacrifice: let it be as it has been from the beginning”

-Pausanias, Description of Greece, 8.38.7

Both Plato and Pausanias are skeptics on the existence of the transformation from man to wolf. Pausanias, especially, makes it very clear when giving account of the story of Damarchus:

"But concerning the boxer named Damarchus, who was by birth an Arcadian of Parrhasia, except for his victory at Olympia I do not believe the other things said by pretentious men, namely that he was changed from a man to a wolf at the sacrifice of Zeus Lykaios and that ten years later he again became a man. Nor did it seem to me that this was said about him by the Arcadians, for in this case it would also be said in the inscription at Olympia, which runs as follows: Damarchus son of Dinyttas set up this statue, a Parrhasian by birth from Arcadia.”

-Pausanias, Description of Greece, 6.8.2

Archeaological search has not confirmed human sacrifices to be taking place, despite the legends. The numerous bones found were mostly ones from small animals, with the occasional bigger cattle or pig. Thus there are strong doubts on the reality of infant sacrifices. If they did exist, the absence of remains would indicate either that the victims were so young their remains didn't survive time, or that the remains were removed for a separate burial. 

Other instances of werewolf tales

It is very clear now that the region of Arcadia is linked for the Ancients to the trope of man to wolf transformation, and probably taking root in both tale and cult. However, this while this is the most documented story, there are other mentions of wolf-shifting in ancient literature. 

Herodotus, for instance, tells us this when describing the Neuri: 

"It may be that these people are wizards; for the Scythians, and the Greeks settled in Scythia, say that once a year every one of the Neuri becomes a wolf for a few days and changes back again to his former shape. Those who tell this tale do not convince me; but they tell it nonetheless, and swear to its truth." - Herodotus, Histories, IV.105

Much later, in the late first century AD, Petronius includes a werewolf story in his Satyricon, which goes as follows: 

"I seized my opportunity, and persuaded a guest in our house to come with me as far as the fifth milestone. He was a soldier, and as brave as Hell. So we trotted off about cockcrow; the moon shone like high noon. We got among the tombstones: my man went aside to look at the epitaphs, I sat down with my heart full of song and began to count the graves. Then when I looked round at my friend, he stripped himself and put all his clothes by the roadside. My heart was in my mouth, but I stood like a dead man. He made a ring of water round his clothes and suddenly turned into a wolf. Please do not think I am joking; I would not lie about this for any fortune in the world. But as I was saying, after he had turned into a wolf, he began to howl, and ran off into the woods. At first I hardly knew where I was, then I went up to take his clothes; but they had all turned into stone. No one could be nearer dead with terror than I was. But I drew my sword and went slaying shadows all the way till I came to my love's house. I went in like a corpse, and nearly gave up the ghost, the sweat ran down my legs, my eyes were dull, I could hardly be revived. My dear Melissa was surprised at my being out so late, and said, 'If you had come earlier you might at least have helped us; a wolf got into the house and worried all our sheep, and let their blood like a butcher. But he did not make fools of us, even though he got off; for our slave made a hole in his neck with a spear.' When I heard this, I could not keep my eyes shut any longer, but at break of day I rushed back to my master Gaius's house like a defrauded publican, and when I came to the place where the clothes were turned into stone, I found nothing but a pool of blood. But when I reached home, my soldier was lying in bed like an ox, with a doctor looking after his neck. I realized that he was a werewolf, and I never could sit down to a meal with him afterwards, not if you had killed me first. Other people may think what they like about this; but may all your guardian angels [genius] punish me if I am lying.”

-Petronius, Satyricon, 62 (tr. Michael Heseltine)

Final words

Despite being present in literature, there seems to be a common disbelief amongst the Ancients when it comes to the veracity of werewolves, but it is also possible that the explicit disbelief shown by the authors cited there is meant to differiate them with the popular folk beliefs of their time. With this, I wish you all a Spooky Halloween. 

#hauntingpaganlore #halloween special #werewolves #ancient history #ancient greece

[afrotumble]

Archaeologist Peter Schmidt discovered evidence through a combination of archaeology and oral tradition that the Haya had been smelting iron ore to make carbon steel for around 2300–2000 years.

This discovery happened when Schmidt was working at the village of Kataruka. Elders at Kataruka informed Schmidt that their ancestors had smelted iron underneath a sacred shrine tree called Kaiija ("the place of the forge"). Curious to verify their own history, elders asked Schmidt to conduct an excavation underneath the sacred shrine tree. Results of this excavation led to the discovery of an iron furnace carbon-dated to the 1st millennium BC.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Schmidt documented a series of experimental smelts to understand social, cultural, and technological processes of past Haya iron making. A challenge at the time is that the Haya had abandoned iron smelting due to the introduction of cheap steel from foreign sources. Haya familiar with iron smelting practices were later tasked with recreating an iron furnace. This included gathering and preparing necessary materials such as iron ore, charcoal, clay to make tuyeres, and grasses. Haya participating in these experiments were able to create a furnace and produce iron of similar quality as those found at iron age sites - Iron smelting documented during these experiments were similar to open hearth furnace steel making developed in Europe during the 19th century. These experiments led Schmidt to forward his "preheating hypothesis." This hypothesis proposes that preheating was a critical component to Early Iron Age technologies in the region, allowing temperatures inside a furnace to reach 1300 to 1400 °C. During a 1976 experimental smelt, the preheating hypothesis was confirmed. This hypothesis was challenged by David Killick and defended by Schmidt and archaeologist Donald Avery in response to Killick's critique. Schmidt's preheating hypothesis was also tested and again supported by S. Terry Childs in 1996.

Pollen core samples in the region document the loss of forested habitats and the expansion of grasslands beginning around the 2nd millennium BC and continuing up to the 11th century AD. It is argued that part of the advancement of grasslands in Kagera Region was due to iron smelting as it required the production of charcoal on a large scale. By 1500 AD, Haya iron smelters introduced the use of Miscanthidium grass (M. grass). As a fast-growing renewable resource, M. grass reduced the need for charcoal. Furthermore, its use allows for a larger carbon contact surface with iron ore inside a furnace, creating a better smelting environment.

[dererumgestarum]

ROMAN SKYPHOI

The skyphos is a Greek, two-handled drinking cup with a low foot. In the 1st century BC, Roman metalworkers perfected the art of repoussé hammering, which allowed them to create detailed, high-relief forms in complex groupings. 

The subject matter of the skyphoi varied from mythology (Bacchus being a predictable favorite) and poetry to politics and philosophy. The erudite imagery reflected the owner’s elevated taste. When used for toasting at formal dinner parties, the subjects depicted on the skyphoi served as conversation starters for guests.

As they were clearly highly prized for their fine craftsmanship and metallic value, when not in use, the cups were often prominently displayed. Several of the most famous examples to have survived were included in hoardes of sumptuous silver, such as the Boscoreale and Berthouville treasures, buried in antiquity for safekeeping.

The patrons of the skyphoi were largely of the patrician/senatorial class, although very wealthy merchants and equites could afford them, too. At the other end of the social scale, the silversmiths were either slaves or freedmen. The cenotaph of the freedman, P. Curtilius Plagatus, identifies him as faber argentarius and represents him hammering a silver cup.

The J. Paul Getty Museum produced this five-minute video on the making of a Roman silver skyphos.

1. Centaur Cup, Gallo-Roman, Berthouville Treasure, 2nd-3rd Century AD, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Cabinet des Médailles.

2. Garland Skyphos, c. 50-25 BC, Malibu, Getty Villa.

3. Cheirisophos, Skyphos with Scenes from the Iliad, Hoby Treasure, c. AD 10, Copenhagen, Nationalmuseet.

4. Skyphos with olive-garland decoration, Boscoreale Treasure, c. 10 BC, Paris, Musée du Louvre

5. Skyphos with Triumph of Tiberius, Boscoreale Treasure, c. 10 BC, Paris, Musée du Louvre.

6. Skyphos with Bacchic Scenes, c. AD 30, Boston, Museum of Fine Arts.

7. Grapevine skyphos, 1st c AD, Private Collection.

8. Skyphos with Cupids, c. AD 25, New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.

9. Skyphos with Labours of Hercules, c. AD 40, Napoli, Museo Archeologico Nazionale.

#roman art #silverware #metalwork #skyphos #classical antiquity

[adalheidismimisbrunnr]

Runes

Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets, which were used to write various Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet and for specialised purposes thereafter. The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark or fuþark (derived from their first six letters of the alphabet: F, U, Þ, A, R, and K); the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuþorc (due to sound-changes undergone in Old English by the names of those six letters). Runology is the study of the runic alphabets, runic inscriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology forms a specialised branch of Germanic linguistics. The earliest runic inscriptions date from around 150 AD. The characters were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet as the cultures that had used runes underwent Christianisation, by approximately 700 AD in central Europe and 1100 AD in northern Europe. However, the use of runes persisted for specialized purposes in northern Europe. Until the early 20th century, runes were used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on Runic calendars. The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (around 150–800 AD), the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100 AD), and the Younger Futhark (800–1100 AD). The Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes (also called Danish, although they were also used in Norway, Sweden and Frisia); short-branch or Rök runes (also called Swedish-Norwegian, although they were also used in Denmark); and the stavlösa or Hälsinge runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed further into the Medieval runes (1100–1500 AD), and the Dalecarlian runes (c. 1500–1800 AD). Historically, the runic alphabet is a derivation of the Old Italic scripts of antiquity, with the addition of some innovations. Which variant of the Old Italic family gave rise to the runes is uncertain. Suggestions include Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin as candidates. At the time, all these scripts had the same angular letter shapes suited for epigraphy, which would become characteristic of the runes. The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a "Gothic hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion.

History and use

The runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century AD.[a] This period corresponds to the late Common Germanic stage linguistically, with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly separated into the three branches of later centuries: North Germanic, West Germanic, and East Germanic. No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were introduced in both the Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Gothic alphabet as variants of p; see peorð.) The term runes is used to distinguish these symbols from Latin and Greek letters. It is attested on a 6th-century Alamannic runestaff as runa and possibly as runo on the 4th-century Einang stone. The name comes from the Germanic root run- (Gothic: 𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰, runa), meaning "secret" or "whisper". In Old Irish Gaelic, the word rún means "mystery", "secret", "intention" or "affectionate love." Similarly, in Welsh and Old English, the word rhin and rūn respectively means "mystery", "secret", "secret writing", or sometimes in the extreme sense of the word, "miracle" (gwyrth). Ogham is a Celtic script, similarly, carved in the Norse manner. The root run- can also be found in the Baltic languages, meaning "speech". In Lithuanian, runoti means both "to cut (with a knife)" and "to speak". According to another theory, the Germanic root comes from the Indo-European root *reuə- "dig". The Finnish term for rune, riimukirjain, means "scratched letter". The Finnish word runo means "poem" and comes from the same source as the English word "rune"; it is a very old loan of the Proto-Germanic *rūnō ("letter, literature, secret").

Origins

The runes developed centuries after the Old Italic alphabets from which they are probably historically derived. The debate on the development of the runic script concerns the question regarding which of the Italic alphabets should be taken as their point of origin and which, if any, signs should be considered original innovations added to the letters found in the Italic scripts. The historical context of the script's origin is the cultural contact between Germanic people, who often served as mercenaries in the Roman army, and the Italian peninsula during the Roman imperial period (1st century BC to 5th century AD).[citation needed] The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, with the Kylver Stone being the first evidence of the futhark ordering as well as of the p rune.

The alphabets of Este (Venetic), Magrè and Bolzano/Bozen-Sanzeno (Raetic), Sondrio (Camunic), Lugano (Lepontic) Specifically, the Raetic alphabet of Bolzano is often advanced as a candidate for the origin of the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes (ᛖ e, ᛇ ï, ᛃ j, ᛜ ŋ, ᛈ p) having no counterpart in the Bolzano alphabet. Scandinavian scholars tend to favor derivation from the Latin alphabet itself over Raetic candidates.A "North Etruscan" thesis is supported by the inscription on the Negau helmet dating to the 2nd century BC. This is in a northern Etruscan alphabet but features a Germanic name, Harigast. Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante suggest that runes derived from some North Italic alphabet, specifically Venetic: but since Romans conquered Veneto after 200 BC, and then the Latin alphabet became prominent and Venetic culture diminished in importance, Germanic people could have adopted the Venetic alphabet within the 3rd century BC or even earlier. The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for carving in wood or stone. There are no horizontal strokes: when carving a message on a flat staff or stick, it would be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely to split the wood. This characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet used for the Duenos inscription, but it is not universal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (that is written rather than carved runes, such as Codex Runicus) also show horizontal strokes. The "West Germanic hypothesis" speculates on an introduction by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis is based on claiming that the earliest inscriptions of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, found in bogs and graves around Jutland (the Vimose inscriptions), exhibit word endings that, being interpreted by Scandinavian scholars to be Proto-Norse, are considered unresolved and long having been the subject of discussion. Inscriptions such as wagnija, niþijo, and harija are supposed to represent tribe names, tentatively proposed to be Vangiones, the Nidensis, and the Harii tribes located in the Rhineland. Since names ending in -io reflect Germanic morphology representing the Latin ending -ius, and the suffix -inius was reflected by Germanic -inio-, the question of the problematic ending -ijo in masculine Proto-Norse would be resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) influences, while "the awkward ending -a of laguþewa may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be West Germanic". In the early Runic period differences between Germanic languages are generally presumed to be small. Another theory presumes a Northwest Germanic unity preceding the emergence of Proto-Norse proper from roughly the 5th century. An alternative suggestion explaining the impossibility of classifying the earliest inscriptions as either North or West Germanic is forwarded by È. A. Makaev, who presumes a "special runic koine", an early "literary Germanic" employed by the entire Late Common Germanic linguistic community after the separation of Gothic (2nd to 5th centuries), while the spoken dialects may already have been more diverse.

Early inscriptions

Ring of Pietroassa (c. 250–400 AD) by Henri Trenk, 1875

Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150–550 AD is described as "Period I". These inscriptions are generally in Elder Futhark, but the set of letter shapes and bindrunes employed is far from standardized. Notably the j, s, and ŋ runes undergo considerable modifications, while others, such as p and ï, remain unattested altogether prior to the first full futhark row on the Kylver Stone (c. 400 AD). Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have been found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Europe in Schleswig (North Germany), Fyn, Sjælland, Jylland (Denmark), and Skåne (Sweden). Earlier—but less reliable—artifacts have been found in Meldorf, Süderdithmarschen, northern Germany; these include brooches and combs found in graves, most notably the Meldorf fibula, and are supposed to have the earliest markings resembling runic inscriptions. Theories of the existence of separate Gothic runes have been advanced, even identifying them as the original alphabet from which the Futhark were derived, but these have little support in archaeological findings (mainly the spearhead of Kovel, with its right-to-left inscription, its T-shaped tiwaz, and its rectangular dagaz). If there ever were genuinely Gothic runes, they were soon replaced by the Gothic alphabet. The letters of the Gothic alphabet, however, as given by the Alcuin manuscript (9th century), are obviously related to the names of the Futhark. The names are clearly Gothic, but it is impossible to say whether they are as old as the letters themselves. A handful of Elder Futhark inscriptions were found in Gothic territory, such as the 3rd- to 5th-century Ring of Pietroassa. The Encyclopædia Britannica even suggests the original development of the runes may have been due to the Goths.

 Fehu

It is the first one out of twenty-four runes of the magic Nordic alphabet. The sound which it represents is F, and its name means “Cattle” or “Wealth”. In the past, cattle were associated with wealth, the ownership of a large herd showed the place of an individual in the community, his wealth and the prosperity of his household, but also the silence and calmness of a happy, worry free lifestyle. Its form represents the principle of good, and we can interpret it in different ways. Its resemblances the silhouette of a man who has his arms raised to the Sky, like he was praying and also thanking. This reminds us that regardless of what we need, we can ask The Father for it, with the certainty that we will get as much as we can carry, but we also must show the afferent appreciation when we receive it. Fehu rune meaning The Fehu’s form also represents the young, fruitful branch dashing intertwined from the trunk, or from a thicker branch. This represents the fructification of work and the success achieved naturally with effort and perseverance. And finally, two tributary streams of water which effuse in a river, meaning enhanced forces, successes, wealth and harmony. It should be noted that the two elements, whether we see in them the arms of a priest, a tree’s branches or tributary rivers, are placed on the right side of the central line, namely in the positive side. In normal position, Fehu signifies wealth, gain, wellbeing, but also harmony and serenity. It is an especially good rune while in a draught because it announces a period of abundance and profit. Depending on the question, the profit or abundance can manifest in different forms. Socially, it foretells success, fame and even advancement. The person’s fame can increase, enjoy kind words, favorable critique or even elegies, which always must be welcomed in absolute modesty. Financially, Fehu announces rightful gain, profit after conscious work, a well-deserved reward or the appreciation of those for whom we work, whether they are our heads or clients. As for love, Fehu shows mutual understanding between partners and accomplishment and joy in general. The partners are open, sincere with each other, working together to bring harmony overall. When speaking of health, this rune brings good health and a general positive state, good immunity and recovery in case of disease. The recovery is a little rough, although long lasting and certain. Fehu doesn’t announce overnight miracles or sudden recoveries, but rather solid and gradual ones, for which the patient has to fight and work. Reversely, Fehu signifies loss, diminution, bad luck, lack of harmony and conflict. Depending on the question, the loss or the bad luck can manifest in different ways. Socially, the reversed Fehu announces loss of benefits and attributions. It may be the aftermath of wrong actions or attitude against those around. We can lose fame, respect, and the positive reputation previously developed can easily fall apart. Financially, this rune shows loss. Whether they are virtual losses, like blocked accounts or stock market ones, or physical loss of goods, including money, we deal with roving or alienation of our assets or money. In the erotic area, it shows lack of harmony in a couple, conflict and even separation. Put in a certain context next to the other runes it appears next it can signify temporal apathy, suspicion of the partner, or even losing said partner due to petty and frivolous reasons. On the matter of health, it can point towards decreased vitality and endangered immunity. We are at risk of disease, and our systems are lacking harmony.

 Uruz

It is the second rune of the magic Nordic alphabet. The sound it represents is U, and its name means “Aurochs” or “Wild bull”. The aurochs was a wild ancestor of domestic cattle, which dominated Europe’s plains up until the Dark Ages. It was the symbol of primary force, beastly power and freedom. Uruz is the token of free, unchained and often hard to suppress forces, but also of brute energy and vitality. The graphic symbol represents the silhouette of an aurochs or its horns, although the parts lack equilibrium. The power is present, with feet strongly fixed in the ground, but it too has an unequal manifestation. The lack of equilibrium can easily lead to excess and then, to extremes, if the individual isn’t careful at the way power, strength and authority manifest themselves in. In normal position, Uruz signifies strength, control, self-control, dominion as well as advantage, but also sudden changes. Being an oscillating rune while in a draught, it brings with itself a dynamism and greatly enhances all of the runes it finds itself next to, be them good or bad. Depending on the question, the changes brought about by Uruz may manifest in different ways. Socially, it foretells a never before seen leap, a flashing ascension and a sharp change regarding assets. Financially, Uruz announces a substantial and unexpected gain, as a result of a risk previously taken which now pays off, but only for a short while. The aforementioned gain must be wisely taken into consideration and administered because other risks, motivated by the wish for even greater profit, may bring about losses equally great to the gain, as quickly as before. In the erotic domain, this rune signifies the primary attraction between two people, beast like attraction and the purest form of sexuality. When speaking of a single person, it shows rich adventures filled with passion, which quickly consume themselves. In the life of a couple, it brings a share of sexual harmony, a lot of passion and complete satisfaction, maybe even revitalizing a struggling couple. Healthwise, this rune represents strength, vitality and endurance. Uruz is the token of physical strength and vitality, energy and adrenaline, coupled with a will of life which can entirely refresh a man. In case of disease, the recovery is swift and sudden, coming in a surprising manner. Reversed, it signifies all of the vices and weaknesses deducted from the aforementioned virtues. Socially, the man is dominated by those around him, lacking in power, and other make decisions in his name. The mental strength is minimal, as is the will of doing anything. If Uruz signifies the all-conquering force, in reverse position, the exact opposite is true, namely the conquered one. Financially, it brings about major, fast losses and uninspired risk taking. Every gain has its time, as does every loss. In the erotic area, it can resemble ignorance, lack of sensibility, even brutality, but also an erroneous use of energy which can lead to sexual problems, both for men and for women. As for health, it can indicate poor vitality, disease or depression, a total lack of will to live, sadness or anguish.

 Thurisaz

It is the third of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet. It represents the sound “TH”, a distinctive sound of Germanic languages, including English. The “T” is pronounced with the tongue touching the upper teeth, sounding very much like “S”. In English, this sound occurs in words as thing, think, thorn, or thunder, but is very different from the sound “TH” we hear in words as the, there, this, which sounds more similar to the sound “Z”. The name Thurs means “giant, titan” and Thorn means “spine”. In the Scandinavian tradition, the Thurs were ice giants, primordial beings with tremendous power, which lived in the frozen lands. Thurisaz is the symbol of their destructive force, brutal power and reactive violence. In the same time, the rune is associated with the thunder god, Thor, a force of good and defense. The Thurisaz rune can have extremely different significations, but they are always drastic.

The symbol has the shape of a vertical line, in the right side of which it forms a triangle. Its shape is the representation of a thorn or a spine, but it could also represent a weapon. We can interpret it as beneficial or malefic. The beneficial force is represented by Thor’s hammer, named Mjolnir, which helped him generate thunders and defend the humans and the gods from evil forces. The malefic force is represented by the battle-ax, the sharp halberd of the ice giants with its scathing edge feared by all. Depending on the orientation of the rune, the force can be interpreted in many ways. In normal position, Thurisaz symbolizes brutal force, the unexpected, the change and needed suffering. It is an unfavorable rune when extracted, predicting a time of perturbation, fast and relatively unpleasant changes, battles, conflicts and restlessness. Depending on the asked question, this violent force can take different forms. Socially, it foretells quarrels, unfavorable changes of situation and trouble. It is the indicator of the fight for survival, for supremacy and rebellion. The situation demands us to fight for what we want, to animate the inner hero and bring forth its force, courage and warlike enthusiasm. Financially, Thurisaz represents the great risk based on instinct, which can lead to substantial earnings or ruin. Usually, this rune warns about impetuosity and lack of reasoning and it is a good thing to pay attention to it when it occurs. An appeasement of character, a mollification and greater patience are required. Health wise, this rune brings a lot of vital force, intense activity and energy. Excesses and exhaustion may exist. Reversed Thurisaz shows frustrations, guilt, remorse, but also accusations, reproaches and threats. It is the indicator of revenge and hate between two former partners. In terms of health, it may indicate excess, overstraining fallowed by exhaustion or sickness. An activity sustained in an unhealthy manner can lead to major disorders at a physical and hormonal level, as well as mentally and energetically. The individual is susceptible to any kind of attacks, pathogen factors and even violent acts from other people. Physical injuries may occur as a result of fights or even attacks.

 Ansuz

It is the third of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet. It represents the sound “TH”, a distinctive sound of Germanic languages, including English. The “T” is pronounced with the tongue touching the upper teeth, sounding very much like “S”. In English, this sound occurs in words as thing, think, thorn, or thunder, but is very different from the sound “TH” we hear in words as the, there, this, which sounds more similar to the sound “Z”. The name Thurs means “giant, titan” and Thorn means “spine”. In the Scandinavian tradition, the Thurs were ice giants, primordial beings with tremendous power, which lived in the frozen lands. Thurisaz is the symbol of their destructive force, brutal power and reactive violence. In the same time, the rune is associated with the thunder god, Thor, a force of good and defense. The Thurisaz rune can have extremely different significations, but they are always drastic. The symbol has the shape of a vertical line, in the right side of which it forms a triangle. Its shape is the representation of a thorn or a spine, but it could also represent a weapon. We can interpret it as beneficial or malefic. The beneficial force is represented by Thor’s hammer, named Mjolnir, which helped him generate thunders and defend the humans and the gods from evil forces. The malefic force is represented by the battle-ax, the sharp halberd of the ice giants with its scathing edge feared by all. Depending on the orientation of the rune, the force can be interpreted in many ways. In normal position, Thurisaz symbolizes brutal force, the unexpected, the change and needed suffering. It is an unfavorable rune when extracted, predicting a time of perturbation, fast and relatively unpleasant changes, battles, conflicts and restlessness. Depending on the asked question, this violent force can take different forms. Socially, it foretells quarrels, unfavorable changes of situation and trouble. It is the indicator of the fight for survival, for supremacy and rebellion. The situation demands us to fight for what we want, to animate the inner hero and bring forth its force, courage and warlike enthusiasm. Financially, Thurisaz represents the great risk based on instinct, which can lead to substantial earnings or ruin. Usually, this rune warns about impetuosity and lack of reasoning and it is a good thing to pay attention to it when it occurs. An appeasement of character, a mollification and greater patience are required. Health wise, this rune brings a lot of vital force, intense activity and energy. Excesses and exhaustion may exist. In reversed position, Thurisaz is extremely negative. Socially, reversed Thurisaz predicts disaster, scandal, lost battles, betrayed causes and fast decline from a position of authority. Financially, this rune shows the unexpected loss of goods or assets, fraud, bankruptcy, prejudice and sometimes even theft. It is not recommended to take any financial action when this sign occurs, because it is an excellent indicator of disaster. Erotically, it shows extreme strife, impetuous breakups accompanied or perhaps even caused by the violent or brutal behavior of one of the partners, especially of the male.

 Raido

It is the fifth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet. It represents the sound “R” and its name means “wagon” or “cart”. It belongs to the same family of the Indo-European RADH root. In the past, the horses and the wagon were the most common form of transportation, the wagon meaning a major travel, in which all the personal belongings of the owner were involved, a temporary or permanent relocation. Its shape represents, much to our dismay, not a chariot, but the silhouette of a man who is advancing, with one leg firmly standing on the ground and the other stepping forward. Raidho’s significance is movement, travel and we can interpret it in many ways. In normal position, Raidho represents all the beneficial changes of situation, progress, achievements and accelerations. When extracted, it is a very favorable rune, foretelling a period of unexpected precipitations, synchronicities, coincidences meant to make life easier. Depending on the asked question, the travels, either literal or symbolic, can manifest under different forms. Socially, it predicts significant progress. We will be able to easily overcome any obstacle and we will do it with amazing skill. We will advance in our social circle and we will evolve for the better. Also, changes will occur, which might appear sudden or surprising, but they will all work in our favor. Financially, Raidho foretells changes and fluidity. It is time to act, to put our instinct to work. We can lose as fast as we can win. Erotically, Raidho is beneficial and denotes that all things go well, going with fast steps towards an ideal relationship. Things are happening fast, but naturally, and couple life is full of energy and completely satisfying. In terms of health, this rune brings health, but also, many changes. Raidho indicates evolution and progress and, in our case, recovery, energy and resistance. In reversed position, Raidho personifies not only obstacles or setbacks, but also the wrong paths we sometimes follow. Depending on the asked question, trouble can manifest under different aspect. Socially, reversed Raidho announces crises, delays, procrastinations, unfulfilled promises. It is time to set aside the big plans and to focus on personal improvement. Financially, this rune displays significant income depreciation, overdue payments, inactivity and lack of profit. Under any circumstances, it is not the time for new investments, it is rather the time to show more patience and to reappraise the available opportunities, avoiding radical decisions as much as possible. In terms of health, reversed Raidho may indicate crises, rigidity and immobility. A poor state of health can limit our mobility or can literally lock us inside the house. It is possible to get critically ill, and in terms of mental and emotional health, there is a predisposition for melancholy, depression and pathological introversion.

 Kenaz

It is the sixth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and of the first set of 8, Frey’s aett. It represents the sound “C” or “K” and its name means “torch” or “flambeau”. Its significance is closely related to the previous rune: Kenaz is the torch that lights the road, the lighthouse or the fire that guides the traveler or the navigator. If Raidho is an astronomical allusion to the Big Dipper, Kenaz is its torch, Polaris, pointing the north for sailors and travelers. According to the common significance, it is the “light at the end of the tunnel” in all its meanings. Its form represents the stylized flame, the tongue of fire. In normal position, Kenaz represents the active, strong and expansive element, the engine of movement, and the reason. It is the spark that starts everything, the original impulse that triggers the process we have in mind. It is a very good rune when extracted, foretelling a period on intense activity and increased energy. Depending of the asked question, the dynamism and creative energy of Kenaz can manifest in different forms. Socially, it predicts the discovery of many aspects that seemed forgotten until now, the unveiling of hidden things that will help us. We will have executive power, significant freedom of action and decision, but also more responsibility. In financial matters, it indicates a sudden growth and considerable profit. It can also signify the risk that must be assumes with temerity in order to achieve the targeted income. In terms of health, this rune brings a lot of vitality and energy. For those who are sick, it predicts fast and certain recovery in reversed position, Kenaz represents the wild energy, the out of control mind and the unrestrained vice. Depending on the asked question, the instability and negativism of reversed Kenaz can manifest under different aspects. Socially, reversed Kenaz predicts disaster, disillusion, deceived expectations and compromise. Unpleasant truths, weaknesses and hidden vices can unfold. Our vulnerability is our own fault and our own lack of wisdom and we must pay the price of caution. Financially, this rune shows loss caused by foolish risks, haste and lack of judgement. Especially in the financial sector, reversed Kenaz is the rune of imprudence, haste and lack of judgement. It can also signify the victory of our opponent or the gain of our rival. Erotically, it shows weakness. The couple experiences routine, lack of creativity and activity. In terms of procreation or plans for having a baby, reversed Kenaz can indicate sterility for one of the partners. The relationship is instable, full of misunderstandings and quarrels. Communication is lacking. For those who are looking for new relationships, it warns about foolish haste and irrational passions, which will only lead to very unpleasant situations. In terms of health, it can indicate physical weakness and a poor immune system. The hope for recovery is weak, emphasized by the negative expectations of the patient himself. Usually, these are short-termed sufferings, vitality crises and lack of zest for life, which can get better in few days, but it depends on the associated runes in order to determine a more precise reading.

 Gebo

It is the seventh of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and the penultimate rune of the first set of eight. It represents the sound “G” and its name (Gifu or Gebo) means “gift, present” or “generosity”. In the past, any new relationship was sealed with a gift from each partner, therefore the gift is the symbol of any kind of relationship. Its form is expressing the idea of fair trade, evoking the stylized shape of arms that offer each other a gift. Gifu represents the meeting between two equal forces, which are opposed in gender, but coincide in nature. Each line of the two lines that forms the rune has its own length, tilt and orientation, but the middle point unifies them, being a part of each. In the same way, in any human relationship, each partner has his own qualities, defects, characteristics and attributes, but what each offers to the other is the link between the two of them or their common point. So far, we’ve studied the position of the runes in two hypostases: positive and negative, which means normal and reversed orientation. But what shall we do with Gifu, which looks the same from any position? Gifu, along with six other runes, which we are going to study at the right time, belongs to the group of symmetrical runes from the alphabet, which looks the same regardless of their position. They signify general things and depending on the other runes they get extracted with, they gain a more profound meaning. When extracted, Gifu is an auspicious rune, announcing a period of happiness, fulfilment and prosperity. Depending on the asked question, Gifu’s force can take different forms. Socially, it foretells an outstanding success and a great personal charisma. An important partnership, a friendship that brings along many benefits are in sight. Financially, Gifu predicts an unexpected gift, a recompense. We can gain profit from the undertaken activities or, we simply receive the sign of someone’s friendship in the form of an unexpected generosity. Erotically, it is always the sign of love, of relationships and good understanding. For those who are single, it announces a relationship that hardly can wait to manifest itself, a connection soon or a confirmation of hidden feelings for a loved person. For couples, this rune signifies reconciliation, understanding, harmony and rekindling love. The partners are especially satisfied and happy with each other and they do not seek anything outside their relationship to ensure their emotional needs. In an extraction with the purpose of finding out the necessary thing in the life of the couple, that ensures happiness, Gifu can signify both gift and sacrifice: let us not forget that the most beautiful gift for the person you love is to scarify your own interests, wishes and whims in order to maintain the happiness of both. In terms of health, this rune brings vitality, health, optimism and joy. The exception is for the cases when the cause for an affection is sought in this case, Gifu can indicate the source of the affection from the contact with other person, and in specific cases, it can signify sexually transmitted diseases, due to its relational symbolism.

 Wunjo

It is the eight of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the last rune from the first set, Frey’s aett. It represents the sound “W”, a kind of closed vowel, somewhere between the sound of “U” and “W”, as in the English words what – uat, want – uant etc. It is rarely pronounced „V”. Its name, Wunjo (pronounced Wunya or Unyo) means „ joy, rapture” or „glory”. In the past, this rune was associated with victory, peace, lack of worries and suffering. It was even associated with Walhalla, the ancestral citadel where the souls of the warriors went after death to find peace, a kind of temporary Viking Heaven. Its form is easy to confuse with Thurisaz; therefore, we have to keep in mind the differences between the two: basically, Wunjo looks like letter „P”, just as Raidho looks like letter „R”. It has a mysterious form, but the silhouette of a stylized cup made from horn can be noticed, which is the symbol of rest and drinking after prolonged effort. Wunjo is the expression of joy, happiness, peace, harmony, but also the brief success, the illusion of momentary fulfilment and we can interpret it in many ways, depending on the position it is extracted and the field of interest. In normal position, Wunjo is a very good rune when extracted, predicting a period of rest, peace, comfort and happiness. Depending on the asked question, happiness and contentment can manifest in different forms. Socially, it foretells plenty of luck and the fulfilment of all the plans we have in the present. We are satisfied with ourselves and with what we have accomplished, and we have very good and harmonious relationships with everyone around us. Financially, Wunjo announces cheerfulness and earnings, but the best way to describe it is with no worries and no risks. The couple life is balanced, harmonious, and happy, without quarrels or worries. In terms of health, this rune brings general health, optimism and zest for life. For those who are sick, it represents recovery, and for those who are terminally ill, going through a lot of suffering, Wunjo can signify the end, which comes as a release for the dying person and therefore, as a joy. In reversed position, Wunjo’s benefits are yet to appear and can often be illusory, if not quite actual trouble. Depending on the asked question, the problems foretold by this rune can take different aspects. Socially, reversed Wunjo announces the decline from a pretty comfortable position, in which we got used to. Increased attention is required for those who are taking the benefits of other people work and those who are “working” by doing nothing, because the good days are coming to an end. Financially, this rune shows loss of money, funds or opportunities of earnings which we believed certain. Risks must be avoided, and we should not get very excited at the first sign of success, because everything can turn at the last moment due to our own exaggerate eagerness and confidence. Erotically, the rune shows that things in the couple’s life are astray, upside down, there are quarrels, frequent misunderstands and lack of communication. Appearances are deceiving. In terms of health, it can indicate a declining immune system and affections associated with the vices we nurture. The principal idea of reversed Wunjo in the medical domain is that not everything that we like is harmful, but especially, not everything that we like is good for us. We indulge in bad and unhealthy habits that slowly bring us down.

 Hagalaz

It is the ninth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the first rune of the second set, the Heimdall’s aett. It represents the sound “H” and its name means “stone” or “hailstone”. In the past, hailstone represented the destructive aspect of nature, the weather’s manifestation that spoiled the crops and the seedlings. Thinking better, we cannot regret the destruction, since nature takes what nature gives. Hagalaz is the first symmetrical rune, with the characteristic of having the same aspect, regardless of the position it gets extracted. This rune has two forms, one belonging to the old runes, the other one to the new runes. The new rune has the aspect of a snowflake, three overlapping lines at 60 degrees angles, but we will discuss about the old rune. The ancient form of Hagalaz rune is also represented by three lines, of which two vertical parallel lines are united by a third oblique line. Its form would have remained a mystery if it wouldn’t have been associated with the cave paintings dating from the Bronze Age, which depicted it lying on a side, with its middle line doubled. It signifies the sky and the earth, united by a violent hailstone rain or a snowstorm, bent by the wind, the distinctive aspects of harsh autumns and northern winters. It is a negative rune when extracted, predicting a period of balance between the positive parts and the less pleasant elements. Looking from another perspective, the negativity is just the way we can perceive the alarm signals. We often find ourselves in situations that we interpret as bad or as punishing, without realizing their true nature. These are signalizing lessons we need to learn, erroneous models we must get rid of and necessary things that we are not aware of. Depending on the asked question, the unpleasantness foretold by Hagalaz can take different forms. Socially, it foretells a crisis, a loss or a tribulation. If we take advantage of the kindness of our fellow human beings or if we are not attentive to share our welfare with the ones less unfortunate, we are vulnerable to corrections. We can lose our status, fame, luck or wealth. Hagalaz is here the symbol of frustration, obstacle, hardship and poverty. Financially, it indicates uninspired risks and loss. In the best case, it might signify legal problems, delays, postponements and stagnations and in the worst case, it implies important and hard to recover losses. Erotically, this rune is quite inauspicious, showing stagnation, routine, detachment, crisis and quarrel. It is, par excellence, the sign of incompatibility between partners. During life, many relationships can be classified as bad, because we are blind to the fact that we attract exactly the kind of people who must wean us. The attachment of a certain type of partner will be broken only by multiple relationships with this type of person, in order to experience all possible scenarios. In the erotic life, Hagalaz signifies the suffering and the alienation, but it can also be the signal to break a relationship in order to start from zero, the destruction that is making way for a new beginning. In terms of health, this rune brings sickness, suffering and convalescence. We are often the victims of our own ignorance and the health is the first domain where our subconscious mind is warning us. Each sickness or suffering has a spiritual cause and it is our duty to study that cause, to understand it and to assimilate its teachings, before we aspire for an undeserved healing.

 Nauthiz

It is tenth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the second rune of the Heimdall’s aett. It represents the sound “N” and its name means “need” or “necessity”. Its form indicates an imbalanced scale, a disharmonious balance. This rune is as negative as Hagalaz when extracted, announcing a period of poverty, both figuratively and literally. Nauthiz represents the need to have, to obtain, whether it is something we truly need, or something we believe we need in order to be happy. Nauthiz is the void, the inner emptiness that many try to fill with either material possessions, money or celebrity, or with ephemeral pleasures. It is the need of something unutterable that we fill, out of cowardice, with something that we shouldn’t. Nauthiz teaches us the courage to look deep into ourselves to find what we truly need. It is a signal rune that warns us that we do not act properly. Through our actions we either cause disparity in our life or in other people lives, or we facilitate its manifestation. Depending on the asked question, the need, the poverty or the strait can manifest in different forms. Socially, it predicts a significant reduction of personal status. We lose ground against our enemies, we lose the trust of our friends or relatives, and we are constantly placed in the second place. It is time to resume work and earn through honest effort all the things we’ve been enjoying until that moment. Financially, Nauthiz announces, same as Hagalaz, losses, poverty, impasse and necessity. We lead a life with no luxuries, and we cannot afford more than what it’s necessary for survival. In a strictly financial extraction, this rune warns us about selfishness, craves and decadence, guiding us to take the path of modesty and of what is strictly necessary. In terms of health, this rune announces a period of weakness, vulnerability and low immune system. We must be careful with our own body and provide it with what it needs, without indulging ourselves in excess. What is beyond absolute necessity can be harmful and can exposes us to dangers. Erotically, this rune draws attention that there is a pregnant imbalance between what we want and what we need. We set too rigid and unrealistic standards for our partner, without considering things from their perspective. Our thoughts are not matching our acts and the tensions are soon to appear. We are dishonest or we are the target of injustice. Nauthiz brings discomfort, dissatisfaction, whims, but also a time to reflect on our true priorities.

 Isa

It is the eleventh of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the third rune of Heimdall’s aett. In the past, in the Scandinavian countries, the ice was the omnipresent element of winter, the symbol of stagnation. Although there is no way of knowing how the old were seeing the ice, whether feminine or masculine, ice is the opposite of fire. Without a frost period, nature would not rest, and the life cycles would be perturbed, without rest, there would be no harvest. The ice is the symbol of matter, the inert and lifeless mass that Fire gives the vital impulse. If fire would not exist, ice would always remain solid, and if ice would not exist, fire would have nothing to melt and thus, spring would not exist. It is one of the nine symmetrical runes, having the same aspect regardless of its position, whether normal or reversed. Its form is the expression of the greatest simplicity: a vertical line with no other element and we can interpret it in many ways, precisely because it is so simple. Principally, most of the runes contain at least one vertical line, so it is fair to say that those runes contain the static potential of Isa or that they originate from the action of some forces against matter. The vertical line is the symbol of ice also because it seems straight, idle, solidified – the principal ideas of this rune. It is a neutral rune when extracted, which tends to emphasize the significance of the adjacent runes it gets extracted with. Depending on the asked question, the stagnation, the pause or “frozen” state can manifest under different forms. Socially, it predicts a stoppage of plans, a delay that occurs naturally and predictably. Although it can be associated to the inner frustrations and worries caused by these delays, Isa represents the static, quiet and calm point, when it’s a good time to redirect the course of our actions, reevaluate the situation and search for the inner clarity and wisdom. If we are not called by our family or friends, it doesn’t mean they forsake us or that they don’t care about us, they are rather giving us the space to be alone with our thoughts. Financially, Isa is as neutral as in the social domain. Our finances are stagnant, regardless of their state. A stagnant and precarious financial condition is something apparently negative, while a stagnant high income is considered mere constant. We must move beyond the subjective judgements and see the frozen state of the economic flux as a sign of change. Erotically, things are the same, but with a slight negative nuance. The couple life is monotonous, replete with routine and it seems as unsatisfying for both partners. Communication is deficient and the behavior between partners is cold and distant. The rune announces major changes in the perspective of each partner, but the nature of these changes can be determined only by analyzing the adjoining runes Isa gets extracted with. In terms of health, this rune brings an excess of cold, affections that occur in winter (regardless of season) or convalescence. We might be immobilized in bed or forced to a temporary exile in our own domicile. More severe cases imply hospitalization in a medical institution for few days or, at least, a limitation of the freedoms we have become accustomed to. The state of health is precarious, there is a lack of vitality, of appetite and even a severe depression. Isa brings along everything in terms of retreat, isolation, reclusion, any situation that makes us become strongly aware of our solitude. This might be at a physical, real level, as in the case of hospitalization or isolation, or at a mental or psychological level, as in the depression cases, when a person feels lonely, regardless of how many close people are around.

 Jera

It is the twelfth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the fourth rune of the second aett. The represented sound is marked with “J” in the northern countries and it is a rather closed “I, more similar “Y” sound, than to “J”. In the past, and especially in the Scandinavian countries, progress, abundance and light were associated with warmer seasons – spring and summer – which were following winter, just as Jera follows Isa. After the stagnation announced by Isa, harvest, warmth, joy and the rewards of labor are following.  It is one of the nine symmetrical runes that has the same aspect, regardless of their position, whether normal or reversed. Its form is the representation of the natural cycles, the two northern seasons that succeed one another. From a hermetical standpoint, Jera’s form is extremely important, symbolizing the two eternal forces: Masculine and Feminine, Warm and Cold, Static and Dynamic etc. It is important because they are not in a perfect equilibrium, one of them is always above the other. When this is happening, The Law of Vibration determines the switching of places, the predominant element becoming dominant and thus, movement occurs. Having the climatic cycles as example, in the cold season the cold weather and the feminine side are predominant, and warmth and the masculine side are dominant. During the warm season is exactly the opposite, the two rarely being in balance. This run also represents successions as patriarchate following matriarch, which in turn was preceded by another patriarchate etc. Even the couple life has this type of accents, one of the partners being in charge sooner or later and opposite. Jera has a multitude of significances and depending on the asked question, we can interpret in the many ways. It is a beneficial rune when extracted, foretelling a period of abundancy, wealth, fertility and satisfactions, but also of turnings of the proverbial table. Socially, it predicts major and usually beneficial changes. The loved ones see us in a new light, our work colleagues notice our efforts and success and congratulate us, and our leaders observe, in a critical but pleasantly surprised manner, our evolution at the workplace. We enjoy the fruits of our labor and we are on the “wave”, so we must be happy. The social success brings prosperity and satisfaction, both in our personal and family life. Financially, the rewards of our efforts and the fruits of our labor are in sight. There might be changes in income, like a salary raise or a bonus, unexpected income as inheritances, lottery jackpots, success on the stock market or simply a favorable and satisfying financial standing. Erotically, things are going from good to excellent. The tensions between partners disappear and little charming mouse and cat games occur, teasing between lovers and those character inequalities that make a relationship unique. Albeit a partner can dominate at home, in society the roles can change, same as in other domains of the couple’s life: when one partner is detrimental, the other will soon take turn to be dominated. Things are going well, the partners are understanding and complementing each other, and all inequalities and imbalances transform in a diverse mosaic of emotions and feelings. In terms of health, this rune brings healing, recovery and victory against sickness. In extreme cases, it can be an alarm signal, announcing the relapse of an affection.

 Eihwaz

It is the thirteenth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the fifth rune of the second set, the Heimdall’s aett. In the past, the symbolism of the Yew tree was closely linked with both death and immortality and it has a special connection with the afterlife. Its shape depicts the duality of the worlds as seen by the old ones: the upper hook is our world and the lower hook is the other world. The two are the same world, they are part of the same divine creation, but they have different degrees of manifestation and solidity, thus making us believe they are separated. Eiwaz is a problematic rune, same as the thirteenth Tarot’s arcana, having the same signification: Death, Change, Initiation, and we can interpret it in many different ways. Eiwaz doesn’t have a negative form, is one of those special runes, symmetrical, that has the same aspect, regardless of its position. It is a very powerful rune when extracted, strengthening the signification of the adjoining runes and announcing major changes. Depending on the asked question, the force, the motivation, the tenacity and the trust offered by Eiwaz can manifest under different forms. Socially, it foretells a sudden isolation or exile. Our acquaintances don’t get in touch with us anymore and we are left alone from all sides. This is not in the least a negative thing, it is the signal that something within us has to change and now we have the chance to meditate on it and the retreat to achieve it. It’s the moment when we can make the most drastic changes in our life and the most daring choices. We can suddenly reunite with distant relatives or long-lost friends, people we thought we would never meet again. We must pay attention to the circumstances of these meetings, because they can reveal elements from our lives that we forgot or marginalized. Financially, we will face a period of privation, poverty or simply put, a major blockage of money and income. This is not, in any way, something meant to punish us or to create us discomfort, but rather something we should see as the inner blockage of any normal flow. We need to assess our situation very well, be content with what we own and return to the humbleness and humility that are necessary to every human being. The financial problems appear in order to draw our attention to our values and our value systems, forcing us to turn our attention towards spirit and soul, but also to the daily needs. Our attitude towards money must be right, because the more we will try to gather and save, the bigger the blockage is going to be. Erotically, the rune shows a quite difficult period, though very important and full of wisdom. The single ones will face a period of a more prominent loneliness, having to reappraise their standards in order to find a partner. We often want too much from people, who are, after all, as imperfect as we are, or to focus on superfluous details (“to have money, to be handsome, to be in that zodiac sign etc.”), things that are detrimental to an effective, spiritual knowledge of the people we get involved with. For couples, it announces a period of quarrels or heated arguments, when everyone is expressing their repressed feelings, ignored vexations and the problems “swept under the rug”. The aim of these arguments is not, in any way, a breakup, but a more profound knowledge between partners. When too many things are left under the key, in silence and oblivion, they don’t stay there forever, but burst out when the last drop makes the cup of endurance run over. In terms of health, this rune brings a period of suffering or convalescence. It rarely signifies death, and only if the asked question directly refers to this aspect.

 Perth

It is the fourteenth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the sixth rune of the second Aett. In the past, destiny was associated with a mysterious dice game played by gods. Luck seemed as random for those who didn’t know the laws of Universe as the dice game, but the old wizards had the knowledge of all the possibilities and all the combinations of possibilities of the dices. If the dice is the good luck or bad luck of the human being, the cup used by the old ones to mix the dices is the supreme unknown in which the destiny of the world is mixed, decanted and decided. Its shape depicts a cavity, an opening and we can interpret it in many ways. The glass or the cup are representing, from the oldest times, the depths of interpretation, the knowledge. Socially, it foretells a rebirth, a rebinding of some connections we thought long lost. We return with new forces, we have a lot of things to do and we feel reborn, reinvigorated. We have fresh energy and a capacity of work that suits very well the new responsibilities, which are coming to test our devotion and dedication. Financially, beneficial and sometimes unexpected changes take place. After periods of financial stress and stagnation, money is starting to flow again, the comfort is increasing, our debtors remember us and honor their promises, sometimes with unexpected interest, to reward our kindness and patience. The little that we have becomes substantially richer and we recover the joy of work. Erotically, things are going great, harmony, understanding and peace are prevailing. The couples are rediscovering themselves, falling in love again, and discovering something new every time they look at each other. The ones that are single or the adventurers have new love conquests and a sexual life extremely active. In terms of health, this rune brings healing and recovering from a long-term sickness. We have our hopes up for better and we regain our optimism. We get back on our feet and we regain our strength, zest for life and we are grateful for our recovery. In reversed position, Perthro announces muddy situations in which, most often, we sink from our own fault. Depending on the asked question, the changes and the teachings can manifest under different aspects. Socially, reversed Perthro predicts loneliness and obscurity. We are not as memorable as we would like to believe, we are pushed, from one reason or another, in the shadows, our opinions are overlooked, and we get the feeling that we are not even noticed by the people around us. This can lead to melancholic, depressive states of mind, from which we can escape only if we self-evaluate our priorities and goals. Financially, this rune shows periods of stagnation, problems and obstacles. We are aware of the future and we know what to expect. Also, this reversed rune indicates that, unfortunately, we can cast our own negative expectation over the future. The mechanism is not predictive, but projective. We don’t know the negative results of our actions, but rather we attract it though negative thoughts and mental scenarios. Erotically, it shows a bad mood and, most often, secret adventures. In a couple, reversed Perthro usually indicates adultery or the woman’s infidelity, or fights caused by it. In terms of health, it can indicate sickness. Whether is about venereal diseases or reproductive system’s diseases in general, or typically feminine affections, Perthro shows the hidden nature of the sickness. It’s recommended to run a complete set of medical tests in order to make sure everything is all right.

 Algiz

It is the fifteenth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and the seventh of Heimdall’s aett. Algiz (pronounced Al-ghiz) represents the sound “Z” or an intermediate sound between “Z” and “R” and the meaning of its name is “elk” or “stag”. In the past, this rune was associated with Heimdall, the tutelary deity of the set, the god of crossroads and the guardian of entrances. Heimdall is the permanent watchful warder, never asleep, the one who can hear even the grass growing and the leaves falling. He is the god of protection and of any kind of tests. Its shape is the representation of a man with his arms raised or a hand with the fingers parted, but also a stylized tree or even the elk’s horns. The horns are the symbol of protection and ownership and the hand with the parted fingers is a sign as old as the world, encountered in most of the cultures, of protection against evil and negative influences. The silhouette of the man with his arms raised towards the sky can be interpreted as a priest or oracle that is in direct connection with the afterlife, the guardian who knows everything that passes on each side of the Gate of Life. In normal position, Algiz represents balance, wisdom, caution and protection. It is a good rune when extracted, announcing a period of stability in the progress that has been made, but also a rune that warns about any possible oversights. Depending on the asked question, Algiz’s protection and prudence can manifest in different forms. Socially, it foretells the certainty of the obtained situation. Any asset earned through honest work is well deserved and the fruits of the labor contain within the seeds of success and future projects. We keep our function or position and we can breathe a sigh of relief if we had worries about this domain. We are the beneficiaries of divine protection and we will continue to be, if we honor morality, rightness and practical wisdom. Financially, this rune signifies the safety and the certainty of wellbeing. We are doing well, and we should be satisfied with what we have. Luxury is not a necessary condition for survival, nor happiness, it is just an illusion. We mustn’t compare our financial situation with those who have more, so we don’t become jealous, nor with the ones who have less, so we don’t become proud. We must strictly relate to the necessities of our own life and the place we are right now. Erotically, the rune shows a good understanding between partners and the ideal dynamic in couple life. The partners complement each other, they know each other’s needs, desires and expectations and they try to fulfill them in the most harmonious way possible. One of the partners, most often the man, is more protective and he has the tendency to take care of his partner, while the woman fulfills the man’s need to protect. In terms of health, this rune brings health, balance and serenity. In extremely rare cases, as life-threatening accidents or prolonged comas, this rune signifies the link between the one endangered with the afterlife. It may be considered the rune of clinical deaths or extracorporeal experiences. Other than that, Algiz is the sign of a balanced health, with minor affections, without which we wouldn’t be human beings, as sparse migraines or passing colds. Vitality is at a good level: there are no major shortcomings in terms on energy supplies, nor overflows or bursts of energy with a sudden or unhealthy manifestation. In reversed position, Algiz is always the sign of warning, the alarm signal that we should pay attention to. Depending on the asked question, the danger that Alzir warns us about can manifest under different aspects. Socially, reversed Algiz announces a precarious situation. We are doing something wrong, we are somehow hurting the people around us, thus becoming vulnerable. Our position can change, and adaptation problems are in sight. We are not happy with the new changes, but they are a necessity that will make us see what we did wrong. We must be extremely careful with the way we talk, think, act and behave, in order to not break the laws of decency. We are at risk of losing the divine protection that we reveled in so far and we must reevaluate our actions in order to ask forgiveness in a concrete manner for the things we committed. Financially, this rune shows loss or abatement. If until now we had a stroke of luck, we must be cautious in actions and wise in deeds, because what comes fast can disappear just as fast. We must make life provisions, pay our overdue debts and, mainly, restrain from making new loans. Any personal or bank credits and loans made under Algiz’s sign are discouraged, because they will only lead to very unpleasant situations. As discouraged are the ambitious projects, risky businesses and gambling games. During this period, we’ll only lose. Erotically, this rune shows unfavorable circumstances, disputes and disagreement. The couple doesn’t communicate very well, taboos, which one of the partners doesn’t want to address, to the detriment of the other partner, can occur in the relationship. The communication, in this case, is affected and things become distant. The partners stop protecting each other, stop working on their relationship to please one another, they rather tend to their own needs and whims, at the cost of arguments and disagreements. In terms of health, the rune can indicate a bad flow of vital energy in the whole body. A medical examination is recommended in order to determine if something is wrong. Our general tonus can be increased when our entire being is aligned with those around us, with the nature and, not least, with the spiritual side. Reversed Algiz is the classic sign of the estrangement from God, of rebellion and of forgetting the celestial and superhuman origin of the human spirit – the root of many diseases.

Sowilo

It is the sixteenth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and the rune that closes the Heimdall’s cycle, the second set of eight. It represents the sound “S” and its name, Sowilo (related with the Latin “Sol”), means “Sun”. Another name of this rune is “Sig” or “Sigel” (Siegel). In the past, the Sun was one of the focal points of veneration, the brightest visible celestial object, on which both natural and human cycles were based on. Its form is the expression of power and light, the blaze, but it is withal a simplification of the oldest solar symbol: the swastika. Sowilo is a symmetrical rune and thus, it cannot have a reversed position. When extracted, it is a profoundly positive rune, often amplifying the force of other runes, which are extracted alongside. Depending on the asked question, the success, the power and the energy foretold by Sowilo can take different forms. Socially, it predicts the achievement of goals and social ascension. We benefit from great success, we are valued by our leaders, liked by our colleagues and we gain authority and power of decision. Sowilo is a rune of leaders, which means that an advancement in rank or a promotion in a leading position are possible. However, we must be careful with the way we act in such a position and make sure we handle all the responsibilities that come with it. Financially, we are successful and wealthy. There will be a period of growth and profit, in which we can invest, and we can make investments, even the riskiest ones. We are on the “wave” and luck found its home. We might have pleasant surprises, unexpected gains and unforeseen benefactions. The money that we lent are paid back and we recover financially from a period of loss and stagnation, which has a positive impact on our mood. Erotically, the Sun’s rune is quite beneficial. Things are going great, the relationship evolves, the taboos are eliminated, and any preexisting asperities are leveled out. There is good understanding in the couple life and plenty of optimism for the future. Family plans can be made and even a child can occur. The sexual dynamic is very good, both partners are satisfied. In terms of health, this rune brings a lot of vitality, zest for life, energy and balance. The positive changes from our life are automatically reflected in our health and vice versa. We are in full swing, we have good energy, work capacity, optimism and a rare joviality which, fortunately for those around us, is contagious. These are those times when we simply shine, and nothing can stand against us.

 Teiwaz

The rune Tiwaz literally represents the God Tyr – the god of justice and law. This rune sends messages of strength that comes through proper and rational balance, and the good of the whole instead of the good of the one. It is honor, righteousness and correct action. It is warrior strength forging ahead calm, cool and collected – knowing that the path chosen is the right path of action. Like a spearhead, it leads the way. The one right way. Tyr is a heroic god of war, and if a Norse warrior carved Tiwaz on his weapon it was believed that the weapon would be strengthened.

Tiwaz Study Tip: The arrowhead points the way and the warrior follows. It is the strength that gives the warrior his righteous courage, the knowing that what he is doing is just, right and correct.

Tiwaz Rune Meaning in Divination, Tiwaz signifies sacrifice as well as success. Often, in order to gain the success, you desire, a sacrifice is needed. It may be the time needed to invest in your dream, and It may be financial risk, or money needed to invest in education, or time away from those you love. Meaning in career or in prosperity goals: Tiwaz is the run of success when things are right and just. the arrow points to the strong focus that’s needed to reach your success. Concentrate positive energy in one direction. Tiwaz rune meaning in love: Tiwaz is a rune of emotional happiness. It signifies a growing passion that is meant to last the test of time. It is bravery in love and knowing someone is right for you.

It is justice, and proper action, and respect along with the courage to act. This rune reversed can hint at injustices, dishonesty and defeat. It can also speak to us about over-analyzing a situation to death. We can analyze the magic right out of a situation by sitting and festering and letting it fizzle. Sometimes it indicates a possible problem with the law.

Are you being just and loyal?

Are you balanced in your approach?

Are you over-sacrificing yourself?

Teiwaz/ Tiwaz Rune Magickal Uses

You can work with Tewaz in your life to manifest warrior strength and courage, and to help propel you forward with cause and passion – and knowledge that you have chosen well., Ways to work with Teiwaz/ tewaz are:

to call for justice

to find victory

to help find the strength and force of faith (highly useful when setting intentions for manifestation work, especially if you are having trouble allowing spirit to lead the way)

to separate unnecessary martyrdom from positive self-sacrifice

to build sound judgement and seeing the truth, and “right”

to find your spiritual warrior strength, will and courage

As with all magical symbols, there are numerous ways to add this rune to your daily practice. Wear it as a talisman, use it on your altar, draw it on paper or in the air to activate it or use it in healing… don’t be afraid to mix up your magic.

Governs:

Obtaining just victory and success in battle, litigation or legal matters

Building spiritual will and development of sound judgement

Develops the power of positive self-sacrifice

Develops the “force of faith” in magic and religion

 Berkana

About Berkano (Berkano, Berkanan, Berkana, Baircan, Beorc, Bjarkan)

Literally translating, Berkano means “birch twig”. Birch was the first tree that grew on Earth after the ice age stepped back. Beautiful birch trees with white trunks and pleasantly refreshing aroma of leaves naturally grow in the North and birch twigs are widely used for healing and strengthening health. Birch forests for our ancestors in Northern Europe were sacred places, sanctuaries that hold the wisdom and healing powers. The literal translation use and symbolic meaning of birch tree pretty clearly tell what Berkano rune stands for. It is a sign of new beginnings, healing, renewal and regeneration, growth, profit, beauty and new life. It is associated with dark green color, Earth element, feminine energy and Freya – goddess in Norse mythology related to Earth, love, beauty and fertility.       Study Tip The “B” of Berkano stands for Birth Berkano Rune Meaning in Divination, if you are asking about new ventures, health and development, this rune in divination definitely brings good news. It doesn’t promise immediate results but invites to get on a journey because it’s the right time for that! Berkano is the rune of birth and can mean both – physical birth of a child or a symbolic birth and rebirth. It predicts success, yet you must accept challenges to get rewards and enjoy your success. Meaning in Career or Prosperity goals: Plant a seed! It will take time for that seed to grow, maybe it won’t be easy, but Berkano tells that it’s a good time to plant that seed and get on a journey. Pay attention to the opportunities of development and growth that come in your way. Some challenges might not be easy, but we must overcome them in order to grow. Don’t fear of difficulties, because Berkano says – you can grow through them and your prosperity, career goals and success are achievable. Profits will come if you start working on your idea, focus your attention or direct your energy into new beginnings or renewal of something you’ve previously abandoned. Meaning in Love: This rune that radiates feminine energy is also the rune of home, family, building and growing family. It might mean that it’s time for a baby to come in the family, but it also can point to the right time to start building a family, move in together or propose, buy a family house or start a new adventure – plant a seed for a new project together with your family members. This rune of new beginnings can also indicate that falling in love waits for you around the corner, the springtime for your heart is coming to awaken love inside of you, so, why don’t you help yourself to open up for the positive, healing energy of love inviting it in your life! Meaning in Health: Berkano points to health improvements and healing. This rune reminds that not always mental and physical health are healed fast and easily, sometimes even right before being fully healed we experience exacerbation – it’s a part of the way to healing. Just like with childbirth – carrying a child and giving birth is not easy, it’s mentally and physically challenging process, yet it’s not something to fear of, it is possible and it creates a new life – at the end the result is much bigger than the struggle on the way. Those difficulties we experience are a natural part to healing – releasing what is no longer needed to let the health into our bodies. Ask yourself are you doing whatever is good for your health? Maybe some specific habit change is really needed to experience health improvements in your life. Habit changes usually aren’t easy, but often, that’s the only challenge we must accept to see our health returning and thriving. Meaning in Spirituality: To avoid stagnation you must direct your attention to growth. If you feel you haven’t really followed your spiritual path lately, come back to it. Don’t abandon your path or something you really want to learn or achieve spiritually just because you can’t achieve what you want right now. Practice be patient and give it some time because every seed needs time before it turns into a flower. Berkano reversed: Reversed Berkano warns about stagnation, lack of development or lack of action taken to promote growth and development. Positive outcome and success are the results of acting and doing what is needed to promote growth and develop your ideas turning them into reality. Do not just sit and wait for the good times to come! Patience is a good thing, but you also need to act and accept challenges, overcome difficulties and grow in order to achieve something more, something better or different than what you have now. In a reverse position it also can indicate that not events, but your own character traits are standing on the way between you and success and that you might be the one who slows down your own development. Are you stubbornly refusing the opportunity of growth? Or maybe you are holding on to beliefs and habits that aren’t beneficial to you?

Berkano Rune Magickal Uses: This rune represents feminine energy, motherhood and healing and it has some magical properties that it offers specifically to women, yet it’s not for women only as all of us has both – feminine and masculine energies inside, and we need both of them.

You can use this rune in your life to

• Promote growth and development

• Get out of feeling stuck in life, escape stagnation

• Build your stress resistance

• Attract love and start new relationships

• Find support while carrying a child and comfort getting ready for a childbirth

• Deal with challenges and find your stability while going through these challenges

• Heal infections, fertility and female health issues

• Promote conceiving a baby and safety in childbirth

You can work with Berkano in many ways:

• Use it in meditation for finding stability through challenges – imagine the strong, balancing Earth energy coming through the symbol of Berkano.

• Draw this sign on papers where you describe your ideas, goals, new plans and new beginnings of something in your life to find your way to success and profit through challenges.

• Decorate your home or your altar with Berkano to promote growth and fertility.

• Use it as your talisman to attract health, spiritual growth and strengthen your stress resistance.

• Use this sign for healing infections, recovering from trauma or solving fertility or female health issues – awaken the energy of this sign through meditation, lighting a candle with this sign engraved on it or placing a candle in front of a drawing that depicts Berkano.

Governs:

Birth, rebirth and renewal new beginnings

Healing from traumas and manifesting health improvements

Building and growing family

Promoting growth and development

Courageously accepting challenges to experience growth

Staying strong and stable overcoming challenges

Blessings for motherhood and reproduction

Putting the knowledge and skills in practice, taking action to promote growth

Ehwaz

It is the nineteenth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and the third of the Tyr’s aett. It represents the sound “E” and the meaning of its name is “horse” or “stallions”. In the past, the horse was not only a transportation, but also an extremely important asset of the household. It represented not only the speed its owner could travel, but also his social standing. Its form depicts duality, communication and partnership. We can see it as a sketched silhouette of a horse, two horses harnessed at a war or hunting chariot, or two men shaking hands. It is the rune of communication and collaboration, because a horse with no owner is an unbridled force, and a man with no horse is not a rider. The rider must love and know his horse very well in order to train him, and the horse must listen to his owner in order to get fed and cared for properly. In normal position, Ehwaz represents the contact, the harmony, the flow and the coherency. It is a very good rune when extracted, foretelling a period of fluidity in everything we do. Also, it strengthens and emphasizes the significance of the adjacent runes it gets extracted with. Depending on the asked question, the mediating forces of Ehwaz can manifest under different forms. Socially, it signifies success and popularity. We are constantly sought; our fame is increasing in important social circles with people that matter, and people start to communicate with us and around us more than they did before. We work in team and we are part of an adequate collective, which we can perceive as a second family. Outstanding gratifications, many coincidences, synchronicities and congruities are in sight. Financially, we can benefit from productive partnerships or the support of other people for what we are trying to accomplish and obtain. Erotically, there is harmony and a great compatibility in the couple’s life. The partner is content and happy, the communication is very open, which is an extremely healthy aspect in any relationship, and things are going smooth. The relationship can reach moments when words are redundant, the two partners understanding each other just from small gestures, looks and, inexplicably, by instinct. In terms of health, this rune brings a major balance of all body’s systems. We improve our lifestyle and our maintenance; we are in good shape and we enjoy an incredible easiness that helps us perform even the most difficult tasks. In reversed position, it is hard to say this is a negative sign. Depending on the asked question, reversed Ehwaz can manifest under different dissonant aspects or limitations that can lead to frustration. Socially, this tune predicts lack of cohesion and communication. We lose touch with most of our acquaintances and the interpersonal relationships fall now in obscurity. Unpleasant synchronicities can occur, we can “suddenly” meet people we hoped we would never meet again, and certain situation can surprise us off guard. Things are uncertain, stagnant, but not compromised. Financially, this tune shows frustration or dissatisfaction. Regardless of how much we earn or what vital necessities are satisfied by our current financial status, we have the feeling that we still need something, that what we have is not enough, that we are lacking something very important. Often, these frustrations have their roots in an unhealthy concept regarding the standards of living, inexistent needs and personal whims. Comparing ourselves with others and envy can play a very important role in this erroneous concept of having more, of being in step with others Erotically, it shows incompatibility between partners. It might be a physical, emotional or mental incompatibility. The physical incompatibility is connected both to the sexual relationship and the living conditions of both partners, for example the distance that separates them. The emotional incompatibility implies major differences in the character, temperament and goals of each partner and the mental incompatibility refers to the concepts the two partners live by. The couple can face a bad period, coldness, indifference, lack of understanding and stubbornness.

In terms of health, it can indicate lack of harmony and vitality. Our lifestyle, our habits and our routine can go head-to-head with our health condition. Affections that limit our capacity of movement can occur, from simple colds that force us to be confined in the house, to accidents of the locomotor system.

 Mannaz

It is the twentieth of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and the fourth of the last set, Tyr’s aett. It represents the sound “M” and its name means “human” or “humanity”. Its shape is mysterious to you, but we can discern two people offering their arms in an embracement. In normal position, Mannaz signifies all the people we are connected to, everyone we touched in our life, both literally and figuratively speaking. Between every person and us (the two vertical lines) there is a permanent exchange of goods, information, emotions and energies (the two oblique lines). Every time we receive something, we must know we are becoming indebted, and every time we offer something, we must know that, one way or another, that thing will come back to us. Everything we do, either good or bad, has an effect, not only on the other person, but also on us. It is a positive rune when extracted, symbolizing not only the human being and humanity, but also kindness. Depending on the asked question, the prowess, the compatibility and the help foretold by Mannaz can manifest under different forms. Socially, it predicts a lot of activity and plenty of communication. It can be either active or passive, express or implied. We are the centre of attention, we have quite a few responsibilities and we must prove we are able to do what it’s required, not only what we wish to do. Financially, we use the relationships we established to advance our own business, or we obtain the help of a group or of a well-intentioned person. We enjoy a good stability and we are engaged in a very healthy financial flow. Erotically, Mannaz represents an outstanding partnership and a mature relationship that went beyond the initial crises. Things are going well on all levels, communication is very good, and the partners are supporting each other, regardless of the severity of the situation. The quote “for better or worse” applies perfectly, even if no marital vows were made. In terms of health, this rune brings health, immunity and vitality. We are in balance with both our inner and outer selves and we can say everything is in harmony. We are enjoying our lives and we evolve in the right direction. In reversed position, depending on the asked question, reversed Mannaz can have different manifestations. Socially, reversed Mannaz announces frustration, dissatisfaction, gossip, defamation, humiliation one way or another. Our actions are selfish, and we must look at the way we act from another people’s perspective. Financially, this rune shows useless risks and bad choices. We’ve proved ourselves impolite and selfish, so we are not benefiting from the partnerships we used to have, nor from the help of other people. We pay for what we ruined, and we sleep in a bed we were too lazy to make properly. Erotically, this rune shows lack of sensibility. Things are getting distant, the shortcomings are becoming evident, even the small and until now, insignificant ones. Everyone is on his own and the life of the couple is reduced to a masquerade, for another people’s sake. Each side thinks it’s in the right and they justify their actions, even the hidden ones, by their own standards of justice, according to their own opinions. In terms of health, it can indicate a low immune system, psychosomatic illnesses and personality crisis. We have no faith in ourselves and, in consequence, we don’t believe in the idea of balance or in the divine justification of sickness. Anyone (especially God) is responsible for our suffering, but us.

 Laguz

It is the twenty-first of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and the fifth of Tyr’s aett. It represents the sound “L” and its name has the meaning of “lake” or “water”. Usually, when the modern man thinks of water, especially at the non-flowing bodies of water, he has in mind the image of a peaceful lake or of a tropical azure sea. Water means life, beauty and the peace we associate it with. The Scandinavian people, however, have known the water under the most threatening conditions: the sea, in the northern tradition, is an irrepressible force, hard to subdue. It can offer work, refuge and food, but in the same time, it can make adventures wander, it can sink ships and it can demand innocent lives. In normal position, Laguz signifies the intuition, the instinct, the unknown, the dream, the hidden and the truth that initiates. It is a good rune when extracted, foretelling a period of emphasis of the spiritual experiences. Depending on the asked question, Laguz’s sensibility and instinct can manifest under different forms. Socially, it foretells a pleasant anonymity, in which we can take refuge when we desire peace. If everything around us is rumbling like a hurricane, we can take shelter in the eye of the storm and enjoy the calmness, whether we circumvent the events or not. We are left alone, and it is good to take the time off for a vacation or a retreat, even if it’s only for a few days. Financially, this rune brings the success gained after some inspired acquisitions. Following our instinct, rather than our judgement, we will make ten times better choices regarding personal and professional economy and it is recommended to make acquisitions or, where appropriate, to invest liquidity, in order to make profit later. Erotically, Lagus shows dreaming, mystery and charm. The partners fall in love with aspects they just discover in the other one. Romance, dreams, a sensation of easiness and unreal are predominant.

In terms of health, this rune brings an increased sensibility to everything that implies external factors and a pronounced perceptiveness to internal factors. In regard to the affections we already suffer from, relief, withdrawal, gradual healing and, finally, health are in sight. In reversed position, Laguz predicts imbalance, lack of harmony, confusion, ignorance and lack of perspective. Depending of the asked question, the sickness, the boredom or the anxiety foretold by this rune can manifest under different aspects. Socially, reversed Laguz announces oblivion and confusion. We are dull, we are no different from those around us and we become a mere cog in a bigger gearwheel. Routine, boredom, lack of perspective and the annoyance to interact with other people are the predominant aspects. We are not able to interact with joyous and positive people, because their success is depressing, nor with sad people, because it makes us sink even further in despair. We pity ourselves, even if the situation is only stagnant, not tragic. Financially, this rune shows numbness, lack of strength and vision. We shouldn’t invest in anything and it is recommended to skimp well our money, being prone to minor, but many losses, which could destabilize and jeopardize our economic comfort. Erotically, it shows doubt regarding our own forces and qualities, lack of self-respect and self-confidence, image or vision problems concerning both ourselves and our partner. There are things passed into silence that the couple should talk about. There are hidden feelings, desires, needs, fantasies and thoughts, which lead to a decline in communication and to a distant relationship. In the worst case, adultery, infidelity and, implicitly, deceitfulness, hypocrisy and lies can occur. In terms of health, reversed Laguz can indicate mental, psychiatric problems, originating, mainly, from repressed feelings and emotions. Everything we repress and all the issues we refuse to face are “swept under the rug”, superficially hidden, out of laziness or cowardice, until the moment when they set off anxieties, worries and noticeable psychiatric disorders.

 Inguz

Rune Ingwaz meaning It is the twenty-second of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the sixth of the Tyr’s aett. It represents the sound “Ng”, a specific sound to the norther’s languages. It is a somewhat silent sound, more of an echo, rather than pronounced, as in the English words’ “king” or “ring”, with a silent “N” and no audible “G”. Its name is a variant of Yng or Inwe, a god identical with Freyr, the ancestor and the genitor of the Ingvaeones and the Swedish dynasty that bears its name, the Yngling dynasty. It is the penultimate symmetrical rune of the Futhark alphabet. Its shape is the expression of duality, balance, the opposite sign forces that intertwine, but also the harmony between the human being with the nature and with everything around. It is a relatively neutral rune when extracted, emphasizing the significance of the adjacent runes and making their vibrations to manifest. Ingwaz symbolizes the ancestor, the father, the origin, the masculine fertility, the virility (being the masculine correspondence of Perthro in terms of sexual symbolism), the harmony and understanding, but also the labour, the effort and the peace of mind derived from fulfilling your duties.  Ingwuz is the rune of the New Moon. It’s related to the Norse gods Ing and Frey, apple tree, amber and moonstone, water and earth elements, the seed – fertility, creativity and cyclic nature of life. It’s a rune of strong family, safety, protection, healthy sexuality and inspiration that comes from within. The depiction of the rune points to wholeness, harmony and protection – it’s like a seed – everything is safe inside there, but in order to grow the seed must sprout, and inside it already has everything that’s needed. Ingwuz Rune Meaning in Divination, As the rune of inner potential, creation and completion Ingwuz in divination can indicate the end of a cycle or new beginnings, it is also a positive sign of harmony and love in relationships, of your strength and beneficial factors in your life here and now. This rune has no reverse, and as that it is always here to bring the good news. It also invites to spend more time in nature where you can learn from the natural processes by observing them. Meaning in Career or Prosperity goals: Feed your creativity, strengthen your mind and don’t fear of making your ideas reality – you have the potential to grow your ideas. If you are worried about outer obstacles, you must remember that the only thing that matters is your inner potential and Ingwuz says you have it. The sense of safety comes from within just like any other feeling, so, work on developing the belief in yourself and your ideas – the road is open. Don’t sit passively waiting for prosperity and success – you are the creator of it. Realize your potential and don’t fear of stepping out of your comfort zone – in order to grow, become big, strong and fertile the seed jacket must slit to open the way for the sprout. In order to live happily in the house, you’ve built, you have to start building it, but before that – gather the knowledge and materials – it’s already a start to making your dreams reality. Meaning in Love: This rune points to strong family bonds and affectionate relationships. It reminds to nurture your relationships and feel the gratitude for what you already have. Coherence, mutual respect and support of the potential your spouse, children or relatives possess make family strong and turn it into a safe place for every family member. Make sure you are the one who strengthens the family or other relationships through your attitude and actions towards people around you. Outdoor activities for the whole family might be the right way to bonding. This rune predicts fertile, harmonious relationships and draws attention the powerful energy of sexuality. Do not neglect your sexuality, develop and enjoy it and it will also strengthen your relationships. Meaning in Health: As the rune of the cyclic nature, creation and concentrated potential Ingwuz points to pregnancy and sexual health. It’s time to pay attention to them, strengthen your sexual health and probably get ready for family growth. It can also assist in healing reproductive system of both – men and women. It also tells that everything in nature needs a gestation period before sprouting – the time when the change can’t be seen, but it’s happening. Without this seemingly inactive period the change is impossible. If you have any health concerns, remember that your health depends on how you nurture it on a regular basis. Illnesses and disorders will step back if you take a good care of your body and believe in healing and your recovery. Both – your mind and body – have a potential to keep your health in a good shape, do not neglect any of them because both are your strength or your weakness. Make them your strength and positive changes will start sprouting! Meaning in Spirituality: Harmony is the key to balance, and through balance spirituality grows and becomes stronger. Pay attention to balancing different sides of your life or different energies within you. As the rune of fertility, natural cycles and agriculture, it reminds of the importance and unity of perseverance and patience and invites to spend more time in nature. Simply observing natural processes, we can learn a lot to grow spiritually. Remember that you can’t grow spiritually neglecting your physical being as well. Activities in nature help balancing and work on all levels – physical, mental and spiritual – at the same time. As the rune of inner growth, it reminds to not turn away just because something doesn’t happen right now or seems in a standstill. Growth isn’t immediate, but to happen just like seeds it needs time to rest and germinate before active growth. Everything is well set, so, keep working and remember that harmony comes from within you. Ingwuz Rune Magickal Uses Ingwuz is the rune to use as your talisman, meditate with, honor and keep in mind to ensure fertility and wholeness in all fields of life.

You can use this rune in your life to: Manifest your dreams, Attract fertility and rich growth in your garden, Ensure healthy pregnancy, cure reproductive issues, Reinforce the power of healing tools and methods, Find harmony, the sense of safety and inner-connectedness, Deal with self-doubt and lack of confidence in your plans and ideas, Develop perseverance and patience on your way to building your dream life, Strengthen your spiritual growth and find the balance, Gather and store energy for magickal and ritual use

You can work with Ingwuz in many ways:

Use it in meditation to reach wholeness, balance energies and realize your potential.

Decorate your home or your altar with Ingwuz to attract fertility, strengthen your family and invite harmony.

Use it as your talisman to remind about your inner potential, dissolve self-doubt and enhance your creativity.

Use Ingwuz in the garden, for example, in geometric planting, to ensure fertility and harmony.

Use this sign for healing to balance energies and reinforce the healing powers of your methods and tools.

Use it in spells and magickal rituals to enhance the power of released personal energy.

Governs:

Overcoming self-doubts and realizing your potential

Connecting with nature and natural cycles of living

Manifesting your dreams

Attracting fertility and healthy growth

Blessings for pregnancy and harmony within family/relationships

Creativity, accumulating and releasing energy

Awakening your dormant skills and abilities

 Dagaz

It is the twenty-third of the twenty-four runes of the magical Norse alphabet and, in the same time, the seventh rune of the Tyr’s set. The meaning of its name is “day” or “dawn”. It represents a sound that is often marked as “D”, but it represents a specific sound. This sound can be found in the Germanic languages, transcribed as “Dh”, and in English is the “TH” sound from words as “this”, “that”, “the”. Its shape is the expression of balanced forces, equality, the communication between Earth and Sky, and we can interpret it in many ways. Dagaz is very similar to Gifu, the rune of grace and love, the X in which the equilibrium can be foreseen. However, Dagaz has two additional lines that connects the upper points with the lower ones, in other words, things are in balance in nature and in the human being, as well as in Heaven. Outlined, the circularity of Dagaz is astonishing: it can be drawn endlessly. This aspect signifies the eternal equilibrium, the infinity, the genuineness of changes. If we take the time to consider, it is a runic variant of lemniscate, the infinity symbol similar to a laid down 8. Out of the four lines that forms it, two are ascending and two are descending, in an unequal, but wise rhythm. Starting from the left upper side, things are rapidly and suddenly descending (the dark), then they are slowly ascending (the light), after which they are again suddenly descending, followed by yet another careful ascending. Starting on the oblique direction, we can slowly descend and rapidly ascend. These all are part of our choices. Dagaz is the last symmetrical rune and, as we’ve become accustomed, we will present its aspects in a general manner, because it can be influenced for better or worse by the other runes it gets extracted with. Socially, Dagaz foretells a lot of success, happiness and growth. We are at the end of a road, at the end of a task or at the end of a period of intellectual or emotional investment and we are duly rewarded. Our work is finally appreciated at its true value and we are glad that we sacrificed so many resources, having nothing but hope. We are in a developmentally auspicious environment and, moreover, we have the power to decide and change things as we wish. Financially, this rune is extremely beneficial, announcing the overcome of the crisis, the payment or the removal of debt, regained prosperity and general abundance. Things look quite optimistic and we can enjoy the fruits of our labour. Our income is good, and our financial plans are concretizing well. It’s time to conclude old scores and to start new projects, and the investments made under the auspices of this rune will always have good results. Erotically, we are content and satisfied. Those who are solitary find inner peace and balance and they can become wiser by understanding the necessity and the usefulness of solitude, and those who are part of a couple are happy together and discover new depth of their relationship. Communication is conducted with clarity, there is a lot of mutual understanding, empathy and spirit of self-sacrifice, aspects that not only make the relationship stable, but they also help it flourish. In terms of health, Dagaz brings relief and recovery in case of suffering, but above all else, it brings harmony and balance. A healthy person, inside and outside, who is in harmony with the surrounding energy fields is the significance of this rune of light. In case of treatment, light, heliotherapy, bioenergotherapy or reiki are recommended, but it can often signify the repeated exposure to a specific category of rays.

 Othila

It is the last of the twenty-four runes that have been the subject of our study and the eighth rune of the Tyr’s set. It represents the vowel “O” and its name can be either a proper name or a reference to ancestral heritage. In the past, although the cattle, symbolized by the first rune – Fehu, was the most visible sign of wealth, the real wealth was the land. Anonymous, unseen, rarely taken into consideration, the yard’s dust or the mud after rain, the land was the man’s most important asset. Without property, there was no point in owning cattle, if a man was unable to feed or care for them. There was no point in having riches, if a man didn’t raise a household. There was no point in having fame, if a man didn’t know his ancestors. All these are characteristics of Othila: the earth, the land, the property, the inheritance, the dowry, and the ancestors. The shape of the rune can depict many things: the beams and the roof of a house, the face and the shoulders of an ancestor or the crossed weapons on the chest of a passed ancestor, along with his helmet. In normal position, Othila is an auspicious rune when extracted, foretelling a period of stability, certainty and gain. Depending on the asked question, the heritage and the values signified by Othila can manifest under different forms. Socially, it foretells the foundation, the understructure, the base of our situation. It is a very strong rune for those interested in social position, indicating the rightful place in a hierarchy or lineage. We are someone’s descendants and we must prove we are worthy of it by also amassing pertinent values in order to bequeath to our heirs. Othila reveals sustainable, long-term projects that at least few generations will benefit from, as opposed to small and petty things people usually occupy their lives with. Even if they are not genetic heirs, the things we start will be inherited by suitable people, which we must choose carefully. Financially, Othila signifies a strong condition, the prosperity that comes from sustainable enterprises and wise investments. This is not a rune that represent luck, risk or undeserved gain, but a rune of capitalizing labor, of certain and well thought investments. It is time to put our money to work for us in a correct manner, implicitly, helping to the development of other people. Blind savings are equally unhealthy in this case, only a solidification of the future projects is recommended. Erotically, this rune shows intimacy and good understanding in the couple’s life. Those emotionally involved can now decide if they can make brave moves, as a joint house or starting a family. The families of those involved are supportive and even eager in this regard, but the ones with the power to decide are the two members of the couple. Othila represents the solid, durable, mature or in process to become mature relationship. In terms of health, this rune brings resistance, immunity and an impeccable health, most likely genetically inherited. It can signify that the health is the most precious thing for the person who makes the rune extraction, and it must be respected and maintained as it is. In reversed position, Othila is the rune of debts and wanderings, but also of bad habits and inherited defects. Socially, the unpleasant inheritance of those before us is giving us trouble. We are facing biases against us, especially in terms of gender, race, nationality or origin. We must work more in order to raise above all negative expectations that we involuntary provoke. Financially, this rune indicates deprivation, blight, poverty and general austerity. We are put in difficult situation, inheriting the debt of those before us. We are forced to settle the things our ancestors did, pay their debts and withstand those who are asking for retributions. Erotically, this rune shows either oppression, or routine. One of the partners is abusively imposing on the other, depriving the latter of choices and freedoms. It might also signify that the relationship is stagnant, the routine reached an alarming level for the relationship to be fresh and there are communication issues. Extracted along a financial rune, reversed Othila can indicate problems caused by a house, an inheritance or money. In rare cases, along with runes associated with magic, it signifies sexual relationships or spells. In terms of health, it can indicate lack of vitality and a poor health. This can be a family medical heritage: hereditary diseases are often associated with this rune. Additional runes can be extracted in order to investigate from which part of the family they originate, where from, for what reason and what treatment should be administrated in order to eliminate them.

[filiiconscidisti]

draco & headcanon : a brief history of the malfoy family, 58 BC - 1970

antiquity

the earliest known written records of the magical family lineage originates from the commentarii de bello gallico (58-49 BC), an account of the gallic wars (58-50 BC) as described by julius caesar (100-44 BC). in chapters 13-14 and 16-18, caesar wrote of the druids of gaul ( present-day france and luxembourg ), noting that their high social standing and education set them apart from the other barbarians. they were also well-versed in “the stars and their movements, the size of the cosmos and the earth, the nature of the world, and the powers of immortal deities.” the magic possessed by the druids complemented well the natural magic of the roman augures publici, who used their magical abilities to interpret the will of the gods through the behaviour of birds – particularly ravens and eagles ( the predisposition the modern malfoy family has for keeping birds derives from their historical augury ). the family’s pure-blooded magical lineage originates from a pairing of a gallic druid and a roman augur in the 1st or 2nd century AD. evidence suggests that the family settled in gallo-roman territory, and remained there for many years.

the middle ages & the viking age

the distinct white-blonde hair that runs in the family line developed from centuries of contact with the gauls, germanics, and their collective ancestors, the visigoths, during the migration period of the 4th and 6th centuries AD. during this period, the family lineage becomes relatively untraceable due to lack of historical record. the family reappears once more in the 9th century AD during the viking settlement of west francia. due to insufficient records, it is currently not known whether the family was of frankish or viking origin during this period of invasion. there is, however, evidence that suggests that the family had attached themselves closely to the newly created duchy of normandy by the late 10th or early 11th century, implying that by this time they already had formed a not-insignificant connection to either king carolus simplex (879-929 AD) or rollo the viking (c 860-930 AD), first duke of normandy. their connection to nobility either way would be cemented with the rise of william the conqueror (1028-1087) to the duchy.

armand malfoy (fl. 1066) arrived in england with the norman conquest in the 11th century. when william the conqueror secured his throne in 1072, he seized the lands of resisting english elite and granted them to his loyalists. having provided various unspecified, but undoubtedly magical, services to the king, armand was granted a 180 acre plot of land in wiltshire that would become the site of malfoy manor. when the manor was constructed, it covered 30,000 square feet and contained 300 rooms, 61 of which were bedrooms ( approximately 50 of the 300 total rooms of the manor as of the modern era are now uninhabitable due to a lack of upkeep ). at the time of the land being granted, the 180 acre malfoy estate housed four muggle tennant farmstead households ( for a total of about 16-20 total farmer tenants, none of whom remain on the malfoy estate as of 1692, when they were forcibly evicted due to requirements set forward in the international statute of wizarding secrecy ), and was capable of yielding up to 900 bushels of grain during a peak and fertile harvesting season. the malfoy family as the landlords absorbed 15% of the total harvest yield from each individual farmstead, and 35% of all profits made from grain sold, accounting for the immense wealth that the malfoys were able to accumulate early into their english residency. as their wealth grew, the malfoys were able to annex neighbouring muggle farmland until the estate grew to a peak of 6,000 acres ( most of which has since been lost as of the modern era. the modern estate consists now only of the original 180 acre plot ). 

the malfoy family maintained a close relationship with the muggle tenant farmers on the estate, being lenient landlords who would not evict the sick or elderly even if their land was not yielding profit. a church, two cemeteries ( one for the muggles and one for the malfoys ), and a muggle school were eventually built. once a year, the malfoy manor would open itself to visits from the muggle tenants, and they would be treated to a grand dinner held in the drawing room. nicholas malfoy (fl. 1340) was a very brief dark mark on the history of the malfoy family’s interactions with their muggle tenants. nicholas murdered many of the muggle farmers under the guise of the black death in the late 1300’s. his motivations for the murders are currently unknown, and his actions escaped the notice of the wizards’ council. he was never charged for his crimes.

the elizabethan period & the renaissance & the age of exploration

the malfoy family continued to thrive well into the 16th century, with lucius malfoy i (fl. 1560) rising to queen elizabeth i’s (1533-1603) court. lucius had, like many, aspired to take the queen’s hand in marriage, but was declined. although never proven, many historians believe that this refusal brought lucius to hex the queen. this bit of spiteful spellwork resulted in queen elizabeth i never marrying and eventually gaining notoriety as the virgin queen. the malfoy family’s opinion of muggles shifted following these events, and eventually culminated into strong anti-muggle sentiment. lucius malfoy i’s daughter, elizabeth malfoy-burke (fl. 1592) ( who was named after queen elizabeth i ) served as headmistress of hogwarts school of witchcraft and wizardry at the age of 35, marking her as one of the youngest persons to hold the post of head at hogwarts. elizabeth held strong pureblood supremacist beliefs, and therefore deeply favoured the slytherin house ( which was, of course, her own house ). like many of her predecessors, elizabeth would lobby for increased selectivity in the students hogwarts accepted. she was unsuccessful in instituting a complete ban on muggle-born admissions.

in the 17th century when persecution of wizarding kind by muggles was at its height. the malfoy family began to steadily isolate itself from their muggle tenant farmers, and by 1692, with the passing of the international statute of wizarding secrecy, all muggles were evicted from the malfoy estate. the malfoys then turned to wizarding society as a place where political and social power and influence could be gained. brutus malfoy (fl. 1675) began to gain notoriety in the wizarding community as an editor for an anti-muggle periodical called warlock at war. his opinions, although still considered to be radical and outrageous at the time, led him to work in the ministry of magic where the malfoy family would find the political influence they had been lacking since their isolation from the muggles separated them from the courts of muggle royalty. septimus malfoy (fl. 1780) grew to be incredibly influential within the ministry of magic. many historians claim that while he worked only as an advisor to he minister for magic unctuous osbert (fl. 1772) from 1789-1798, septimus was more the minister than osbert. osbert was elected two terms, with septimus serving as the de facto minister. the malfoy family continued to hold such influential ministry positions into the modern age.

the modern era

the modern era saw many changes for the malfoy family. with no muggle tenant farmers remaining on the estate property and no monetary investment placed in muggle industry, their wealth began to decline. eventually, 5,820 acres of the 6,000 acre estate were sold, leaving the estate with only its original grant size of 180 acres. the malfoy family continued to foster their connections within both hogwarts and the ministry in an attempt to prevent their line from dying. in 1962, nobby leach (fl. 1960) became the first muggle-born to be appointed to the post of minister for magic. several members of the wizengamot, which was packed primarily with prominent members of pure-blooded and sacred 28 families, resigned in protest. abraxas malfoy (fl. 1954-1968), however, did not resign. instead, he grew close enough to the minister that he was able to hex the minister, causing him to come down with a sickness that forced him to prematurely resign his post in 1968. no conclusive evidence was ever brought forward against abraxas, and he was heralded a hero in pure-blooded wizarding circles. two years later, the first wizarding war would begin, with abraxas’s son, lucius abraxas malfoy ii (1954-current), fighting at the frontlines in support of pureblood superiority.

#(( this is going to go under his info page as well but i like it a lot so it's going here too ))