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f4liveblogarchives · 3 years

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Fantastic Four Vol 1 #227

Thurs Apr 30 2020 [06:34 PM] Wack'd: Another story catalyzed by space objects falling to Earth [06:35 PM] Wack'd: This time a meteor lands in a lake in Pennsylvania [06:36 PM] Wack'd: One of Reed's science friends calls Reed and is like "hey, I know you're big into meteors, wanna come do science and hang out" [06:37 PM] Bocaj: Space needs to stop dumping its junk in our yard [06:37 PM] Wack'd: I mean hey, we do it too. It's reciprocal pollution [06:37 PM] Umbramatic: The Great Space Junk Exchange [06:38 PM] Bocaj: When has a thing earth sent v'gering into space ever caused a problem [06:38 PM] Umbramatic: ...what the fuck were the dinosaurs polluting space with to get what they did [06:38 PM] Bocaj: Its not like we send a hulk of stuff and crash it into gladiator planets [06:38 PM] maxwellelvis: @Umbramatic Tobacco [06:38 PM] Wack'd: @Umbramatic : *Land Before Time* videocassettes [06:38 PM] Umbramatic: dbtgfrh ojgifmhk hjnl;.'; [06:38 PM] Bocaj: Ha [06:39 PM] maxwellelvis: The real reason the dinosaurs went extinct. [06:39 PM] Wack'd: So anyway the team is going on vacation! Johnny wants to get a tan and Sue is like "let's bring the grill" and I'm like "you're. You're going to Pennsylvania" [06:39 PM] Wack'd: Like yes the caption specifies it landed at a resort but like, c'mon [06:39 PM] Bocaj: CAN Johnny tan? [06:39 PM] Bocaj: He's exposed to heat and light every day of his life [06:40 PM] Bocaj: Can Johnny Storm get a sunburn? [06:40 PM] Bocaj: Also: why isn't his name Blaze? [06:40 PM] Wack'd: Maybe he can choose to but it's unpleasant to use his powers for it and he prefers the old-fashion way [06:40 PM] Bocaj: Hm, acceptable handwave [06:40 PM] Wack'd: Like there's a difference between being exposed to solar radiation from billions of miles off and setting yourself on fire [06:41 PM] Wack'd: Ben is grumpy because Alicia is bogged down with work and can't make it, and his only other friend will be busy with science [06:41 PM] Wack'd: (You'd think he could hang out with Sue and Johnny and Franklin but whatever) [06:42 PM] maxwellelvis: Sandman stopped taking his calls? [06:42 PM] Wack'd: Sandman tries to beat him up on the regular, what're you talking about [06:42 PM] maxwellelvis: Ahh, right, you're not reading Two-In-One. [06:42 PM] maxwellelvis: Okay, there's ONE thing in Marvel Two-In-One that causes an actual change to the status-quo in Marvel; there's an issue where Ben goes to a bar and finds Sandman is also there. So he sits down with him and they talk. [06:43 PM] Wack'd: "Yer off yer meds again, aren'tcha, Flint" [06:43 PM] Bocaj: One of my favorite scenes in the DCAU [06:44 PM] Bocaj: Get rekt that scene of Batman talking to Ace, psychic meltdown [06:44 PM] maxwellelvis: By the end of the issue, Sandman has gone legit, and for like a decade, he stayed so, until eventually some Spider-Man story needed him back on the Sinister Six. [06:44 PM] Bocaj: (Because it implies that Only Batman can human at people is why) [06:44 PM] Wack'd: Decade does seem to be where Marvel status quo changes top out sadly [06:44 PM] Bocaj: I think it was after the clone saga [06:45 PM] Bocaj: During the panic mode 'shit roll it back roll everything back fuck fuck fuck' kneejerk [06:45 PM] Wack'd: Gotta remind people of the good ol days after that stinker, yeah [06:45 PM] maxwellelvis: Then it was close to like, two decades or something. [06:45 PM] maxwellelvis: That's an astonishingly long time in comics. [06:45 PM] Wack'd: Oh wow [06:45 PM] Bocaj: Funfact: Sandman was an Avenger [06:45 PM] Wack'd: Huh! [06:45 PM] Bocaj: Reserve, but still. [06:45 PM] Bocaj: Nice [06:46 PM] Wack'd: If nothing else the idea of him as a sympathetic crook seems to have stuck [06:46 PM] Wack'd: Which is not nothing [06:46 PM] Bocaj: Sam Raimi intensifies [06:46 PM] maxwellelvis: Marvel Two-In-One Vol 1 #86 is the relevant issue. [06:46 PM] maxwellelvis: So it hasn't happened yet at the time you're reading, is the other reason you hadn't heard about it. That issue was in 1982, so about a decade and a half, give or take. [06:47 PM] maxwellelvis: And you weren't far-off with that JLU joke, @Wack'd, says here that a big thing in the issue is Sandman dealing with the trauma of having been merged with Hydro-Man. Which is probably why he's receptive to the idea of going legit. [06:48 PM] Wack'd: Alright then [06:48 PM] Wack'd: ...anyway Sandman isn't. In this one. So [06:49 PM] maxwellelvis: Yeah, this was a lot more explaining for a dumb joke than I anticipated. [06:49 PM] Wack'd: Back to the story at hand [06:50 PM] Wack'd: Ben decides he's gonna go fishing. He's got a floppy hat and a vest and everything. Also: more womanly stereotypes!

[06:51 PM] Umbramatic: i love ben's fishing outfit [06:52 PM] Bocaj: He looks so happy [06:52 PM] maxwellelvis: Fishing hats like that always make me flash back to that M*A*S*H episode where Col. Blake salutes while wearing his hat and hooks his finger on it. [06:52 PM] maxwellelvis: "What are you trying to DO to me?!" [06:52 PM] Bocaj: Oooow [06:52 PM] Wack'd: They fly into Pennsylvania and things have. Escalated.

[06:52 PM] Bocaj: "I don't want to hoard gold, I want to turn people into dinosaurs" "HE KEEPS SAYING THAT" [06:53 PM] Wack'd: For the record earlier cutaway panels show this is a bird that got mutated by the meteor but I got distracted and forgot to post it [06:53 PM] Umbramatic: that pterosaur's wings make me viscerally angr--AND THAT MAKES IT EVEN WORSE [06:53 PM] maxwellelvis: Somewhere a paleontologist is weeping [06:53 PM] maxwellelvis: OR [06:53 PM] maxwellelvis: Oh cool, I didn't know the writers of *Dino Squad* ghostwrote this issue [06:53 PM] Umbramatic: that's me, i'm the weeping palentologist [06:54 PM] Mousa The 14: The bird didn’t mutate, it simply regressed to an earlier form [06:54 PM] Bocaj: HROINK! [06:54 PM] Umbramatic: if it did that it'd be more like a velociraptor [06:54 PM] Mousa The 14: Hroink indeed. Hroink indeed. [06:55 PM] maxwellelvis: Pterosaurs and birds are completely different groups of archosaurs, that's a mutation, Mousa. [06:55 PM] Umbramatic: YES [06:55 PM] Wack'd: Not really sure why this merited a silent panel

[06:55 PM] Bocaj: Just put up an invisible force slide [06:55 PM] Mousa The 14: Artist showing off [06:56 PM] Wack'd: How bad he can draw children? [06:56 PM] Umbramatic: i dunno which makes a better reaction image, franklin's face or the pterosaur's [06:56 PM] Mousa The 14: Or to show Franklin is about to use. THE POWER [06:56 PM] Bocaj: Its not the worst tiny adult i've seen in comics [06:56 PM] maxwellelvis: Unless it leads to another god-child moment, it's a rather pointless reaction image. [06:56 PM] Bocaj: I'm not saying that its all Franklin's fault but I blame Cable on him [06:56 PM] Bocaj: God-child arms race [06:57 PM] Wack'd: So the monster explodes, and Reed collects its gem--EUGH

[06:57 PM] Bocaj: I don't like this. [06:58 PM] Wack'd: Ftr Gideon Carruthers is Reed's science friend. We already have a Gideon so I'll call him Carruthers [06:58 PM] Umbramatic: -screaming- [06:58 PM] Wack'd: To disambiguate him from the rich doofus [06:58 PM] Bocaj: I'd laugh my ass off if he looked just like gideon from gravity falls [06:58 PM] Bocaj: or even gideon from Scotts Pilgrim [06:59 PM] maxwellelvis: I know there's some sci-fi parasite this reminds me of, but I can't think what. [06:59 PM] Bocaj: Captain N mother brain? [06:59 PM] maxwellelvis: Parasite [06:59 PM] Bocaj: She was a parasite on my peace of mind [07:02 PM] Wack'd: Sue takes a moment to check that Franklin isn't traumatized but he's like "we fought and won, just like in the comics!" And then uh

[07:02 PM] Wack'd: Were comics caught up in the Satanic Panic or whatever? Like [07:02 PM] Umbramatic: -screams- [07:02 PM] Wack'd: Seems more like a 50s thing [07:02 PM] Wack'd: Also yeah that sure is a Franklin [07:02 PM] Bocaj: I think Wertham argued that kids couldn't distinguish comics from reality and yeah that was way before this I think [07:03 PM] Bocaj: I think in his book he cited an incident that I don't know if legit or not where a kid tied a blanket around their neck like a cape and jumped off a roof [07:03 PM] Wack'd: Eesh [07:04 PM] Bocaj: Not sure that could be laid at Superman's feet. He very clearly says 'I have alien powers from being an alien' [07:04 PM] Wack'd: Can't wait to see this kid's mutt mutate into MCGRUFF, THE CRIME DOG

[07:04 PM] Bocaj: Duff Dog Oh Yeah [07:04 PM] Bocaj: Suds McDuffie [07:04 PM] Wack'd: This is cool too I guess

[07:05 PM] maxwellelvis: I was going to say, I think a dire wolf is more likely. [07:07 PM] Umbramatic: awoooo [07:07 PM] Bocaj: Werewolves of Slyvania [07:07 PM] maxwellelvis: I really wish the LOTR movies had modeled the Wargs more on dire wolves than hyenas. [07:08 PM] Wack'd: Okay I think we can safely dismiss the idea of these mutations having some kind of basis in scientific reality

[07:08 PM] Wack'd: Paleontologists rest easy [07:08 PM] Umbramatic: FOREHEAD BEAM [07:08 PM] Bocaj: You've never seen a dog shoot a laser? [07:09 PM] Umbramatic: pidge shoots lasers all the time [07:09 PM] Wack'd: Anyway this time instead of the monster exploding Reed spots the parasite on the back of its neck and grabs it before self-destruct is triggered [07:09 PM] Wack'd: Kid gets his dog back and dog stops being a fiend [07:09 PM] Umbramatic: we have to prevent her from doing it to the neighbors [07:09 PM] Bocaj: Duffer... will live [07:10 PM] Wack'd: Reed I, uh, think the forehead laser puts a serious hole in your theory!

[07:11 PM] Wack'd: Also the fuck is the "evolutionary agent"? Is he claiming we have, like, an evolution gland that pumps evolution juice into our bodies that makes us not be weird history monsters? [07:12 PM] Wack'd: Okay so Reed elaborates that the forehead laser is because the parasite gives its hosts psychic powers to make them more powerful so they can steal gasoline to eat [07:12 PM] maxwellelvis: Well, sure, I can see how that- huh? [07:13 PM] Wack'd: "It makes a bizarre kind of sense," says Carruthers, who is also identified as a geologist and so I guess is just rolling with this [07:13 PM] Bocaj: Carruthers: "Its not a rock so i don't fuckin know" [07:14 PM] Wack'd: Sue is upset that Franklin is in danger and weird shit keeps finding them and Reed is like "we do have some quiet times, they just happen off-panel" and Sue is like "you're right, I'm sorry I snapped" [07:14 PM] Wack'd: And she wants a normal life and yadda yadda [07:14 PM] Bocaj: Like that time she played horsey [07:15 PM] Bocaj: REMEMBER THE HORSEY TIMES SUE [07:15 PM] Wack'd: Sue, hold on to your memories of like the first two pages of each recent arc [07:15 PM] Bocaj: Yeah! [07:16 PM] Umbramatic: thbijgthp oknjlph;[m'n [07:16 PM] Wack'd: So they send Ben down in scuba gear to get the meteor which does actually kinda look like it could be a Steven Universe corrupted gem. Unfortunately he brings something back with him

[07:17 PM] Wack'd: Remember: if a character says they want to go fishing in act one they need to catch a giant sea monster by act three [07:17 PM] maxwellelvis: Shai-hulud [07:17 PM] Umbramatic: poor ben [07:17 PM] Umbramatic: he just wanted to turn fish in to blathers [07:18 PM] Wack'd: Reed, being the smart intelligent thing he is, puts this round item down on the floor of a rocking boat [07:19 PM] Wack'd: It cracks open and [07:19 PM] Wack'd: And then Sue was the reverted evolution thingy

[07:19 PM] Bocaj: So whats the 'reverted evolution' of Sue [07:20 PM] Bocaj: Issue 1 Sue where she didn't ever contribute anything? [07:20 PM] Wack'd: Uh. Angry, I guess?

[07:20 PM] Bocaj: My idea was funnier and plausibly unfair [07:20 PM] Wack'd: True [07:21 PM] Bocaj: Hope this isn't another situation where Reed is justified in belting her [07:21 PM] Wack'd: Also Reed opens the cracked egg and finds five grooves for parasites to be in like seeds [07:21 PM] Wack'd: So after Sue there's one unaccounted for [07:21 PM] Bocaj: Dun dun dun [07:22 PM] Wack'd: Immediately resolved by it dropping out of a tree and on to Carruthers' neck [07:22 PM] Umbramatic: oh [07:22 PM] Bocaj: Whats tension anyway [07:23 PM] Wack'd: Hm. Reverting made his skin darker. Don't like that

[07:24 PM] Bocaj: I do like the resigned "Yep -- I wuz right" from Ben [07:24 PM] Bocaj: Don't like "uglier than the hulk" paired with the thing you said [07:25 PM] Wack'd: Anyway Carruthers goes after some oil because these things eat oil remember, so Johnny blows up the oil and Carruthers goes flying like in an action movie or a Looney Tune [07:25 PM] Wack'd: Thus knocking him out so Ben can get the parasite off him before he explodes [07:26 PM] Bocaj: Yaa~aaay [07:26 PM] Wack'd: Oh. Oh fuck [07:27 PM] Wack'd: I've been sitting here thinking "but why are the monsters blowing up anyway? How does that benefit the parasites? Surely they'd want to keep the host alive to keep collecting oil" [07:27 PM] Wack'd: Adding to that, Reed postulates time is a factor as to why some explode and some don't [07:28 PM] Wack'd: But, uh. I thiiiiiiink it might be a lot simpler than that

[07:29 PM] Wack'd: If I'm right, Franklin blew up the dragon and the sea monster. He wasn't around for the dog and Carruthers [07:29 PM] Bocaj: Dun dun DUUUUN [07:29 PM] Wack'd: (And probably wouldn't have blown them up if he had!) [07:29 PM] Bocaj: Geez Franklin, geez [07:30 PM] Wack'd: And now he's like "do I...blow up mommy? No, right? I feel like that's probably a no" [07:32 PM] Wack'd: Anyway Sue is not entirely mutated, just got some weird facial deformities and is a little out of it. Reed says its maybe her cosmic ray blood [07:32 PM] Umbramatic: *screams* [07:32 PM] Umbramatic: @ the franklin face [07:32 PM] Wack'd: Haha! VINDICATED

[07:33 PM] Wack'd: Honestly kudos to Moench here for successfully constructing a mystery I didn't know was a mystery until the reveal happened [07:33 PM] Wack'd: That's some good writing right there [07:34 PM] Wack'd: Less good writing: this

[07:34 PM] Umbramatic: so nice work [07:35 PM] Wack'd: Anyway Franklin blows up the parasite without hurting Reed or Sue and is very proud of himself [07:36 PM] Wack'd: And Reed concludes "uh maybe we should figure out exactly hat Franklin's deal is" before the whole team hightails it back to New York [07:36 PM] Wack'd: A happy ending maybe

[07:37 PM] Bocaj: OR IS IT? [07:37 PM] Wack'd: Nope, turns out they have another son [07:38 PM] Bocaj: Benjamin Jonathan Richards you were named after the two bravest men I know [07:39 PM] Wack'd: LETTERS! Everybody loves some letters [07:39 PM] Wack'd: Eric L Watts wants Johnny to fall in love with another superhero and Ben and Alicia to get married. I like one of those ideas [07:39 PM] Bocaj: Is that the one what did happen eventualy? [07:40 PM] Wack'd: I mean both of those happen eventually [07:40 PM] Bocaj: Or is it the one, due to the vagaries of gendered language, that has Johnny come out as queer? [07:40 PM] Wack'd: Ha [07:41 PM] maxwellelvis: Lyja isn't a superhero when she and Johnny meet, though. [07:41 PM] Wack'd: Someone wants to know how Sienkiewicz is pronounced! It's sinKEVitch [07:41 PM] Wack'd: @maxwellelvis He does also date Medusa, so [07:41 PM] Bocaj: He's dated Crystal and Medusa [07:41 PM] maxwellelvis: Good golly [07:41 PM] Bocaj: He dates Nova, not that one, who probably counts if Silver Surfer do [07:42 PM] Bocaj: Huh. This list of romantic partners I've found for him is shorter than you'd expect [07:42 PM] Wack'd: People are kind of tetchy at how much Reed stretches now. Two different letter writers are like "He's not Plastic Man!" [07:42 PM] Bocaj: Hah. [07:43 PM] Wack'd: And people really like the more domestic stuff, specifically how Sue is written [07:43 PM] Wack'd: I'm sure the fact that all the letter writers are dudes is a coincidence [07:44 PM] Bocaj: I'm kind of but not really but a little surprised that Carol and Johnny haven't gone on at least one date. They have a venn diagram social circle and Carol dated Spider-Man briefly which is a similar kind of energy [07:44 PM] Wack'd: Oh hey, look who's making her *Fantastic Four* debut

#1981 #Doug Moench #Bill Sienkiewicz #The Main Book

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ruffboijuliaburnsides · 4 years

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Know You Uncomfortably Well: 5, 8, 9, 12, 23, 24, 28, 33, 35, 38, 46, 50, 67, 86, 87 (you /did/ ask for it, my friend :p)

haha I did indeed, and you are ridiculous. *cracks knuckles* HERE WE GO!

5. What is your favorite color?

Purple! Specifically purples along this sort of palatte:

8. Where are you from?

Arizona, originally! But upstate new york is legitimately where my heart lies and where Birdie and I ultimately plan to return to one day.

9. How tall are you?

5′4.75″ ...It’s actually closer to 5′4.5″ but well it all comes out about 164cm in the end.

12. What was your last dream about?

So I don’t tend to remember my dreams very well, but they always tend to be very cinematic and don’t always even involve me, though some of them do. Always there’s a plot, even if I can’t remember what the plot is.

The last one I still have some vague memory of I was living in some sort of fascist sort of 1984-ish state, but all slick and 2000s modern and stuff. And I was in a resistance with Penn & Teller for some reason? And somehow they were still celebrities? It was bizarre.

23. Have you ever met any celebrities?

I have! I think there’s only two that weren’t like. Popular Christian Musicians From The Late 90s/Early Aughts, and those were Alice Cooper (who was very nice and thought the story I told him about how when my mom was in college he performed near her and she hopped the fence at the tiny local airport his private plane had landed in and stuck her gum to the bottom of it before going to the concert was VERY funny).

And the other one I actually knew before he was a celebrity but I think it still counts? But I was kind of quasi-adopted as a little sister sort of person by Kellan Lutz’s mom? Uh, he was in the Twilight movies, I forget the guy’s name, the big jock one of the Cullens? I also babysat his younger brothers, and Kellan taught me how to play Pokemon Snap in his living room. This was when he was in high school, obviously - he was a year older than me and I thought he was super nice. I basically lived at their house for a couple years.

24. Baths or showers?

Depends on what I want/need out of it. If it’s just “I want to get clean and maybe warm”, showers every time especially if there’s not a good deep tub available. If I want to soak to help my joints/muscles hurt less or if my spoons are low for standing, then baths.

My kingdom for either a LARGE tub with a separate shower that fits a shower chair, or one of those walk-in sitting tubs with a shower attachment.

28. What type of music do you like?

ALL KINDS. Seriously, I have yet to run into a type of music that I don’t like ANYTHING from that genre, though I’m pickier about some things like heavy metal or country. But I really like kind of. Indie Rock circa the early aughts? Not even rock, just like. Indie rock/pop/folk/country/whatever that weird thing that was going on like. Norah Jones, Ingrid Michaelson, Rilo Kiley, Neko Case, Sara Bareilles... idk there’s a similar through line to a lot of them? ...Maybe it’s just they’re all girls man idk XD But also Give Me Mountain Goats. I love The Mountain Goats.

I just like songs, generally. Fuck genre, often even fuck artist bc there are many artists who I only really listen to a couple of songs from and don’t really get into the other stuff they do.

Also filk. Seanan and Vixy & Tony and SJ Tucker and all sorts of fun fantasyish folk.

33. What do you typically have for breakfast?

I mean, often “nothing”, or “I grab some crackers or a boost shake to get me through until lunch”. I don’t actually like eating right after I’ve woken up? But sometimes I’ll have cereal or toast.

35. Have you ever tried archery?

*sobs into hands* OK so when we were living in Florida, my friend Dorian and I actually used to go to an archery class every week, and it was SO FUN. But then he got a new job and couldn’t do it anymore, and he was my ride and I tried going alone but it just wasn’t the same, but I did graduate to the intermediate class before I stopped going. I MISS IT SO FUCKING MUCH.

I’d really like to take it back up again, but I don’t have anywhere to practice or anything, so it’s difficult.

38. What’s the longest you’ve ever gone without sleep?

I think 72 hours, if you don’t count 10 minutes of being conscious but just *grazing* the edges of sleep and then getting woken up again before I could actually sleep.

When the insomnia passed, I slept for like 16 hours straight with two quasi-conscious points when I went to pee.

46. What is your personality type?

Like, from a test or just in general? In general I think I’m a pretty optimistic but dreamy person. Creative, not great at motivation, prefer working alone or with one trusted partner I already know to groups, like my alone time, etc. I did take a couple personality tests to answer tho!:

(from here)

50. Left or right handed?

Right handed but I keep trying occasionally to cultivate left handedness in myself. Something I’ve been trying to do since I was like 11 (I never stick at it long enough for it to work, ftr) initially because I was deeply paranoid I would get leukemia and have to get my right arm amputated (I was a weird kid) and I wanted to not have to re-learn how to write while dealing with all that, but then moving forward just ‘cause it would be cool to be able to do, especially when like, I’m trying to do an essay test and my hand is cramping up.

67. Can you name all 50 states of America?

Well, I didn’t think so and i probably couldn’t do it without a map or a list of what I’ve already named, but I took a test and got 100% sooooo...

86. What are you allergic to?

Tylenol and cantaloupe! Also possibly aspirin. None of them like LIFE THREATENING but tylenol has increased in severity of symptoms every time I’ve taken it since I was little and the last time I tried I got a REALLY itchy throat and mouth and it felt like things were swollen and making breathing not DIFFICULT but at least very mildly obstructed, so it’s probably for the best not to take it again, y’know?

87. Do you keep a journal?

I don’t. I used to, when I was in high school I had like four thick journals that had like, those fancy cloth/beaded covers and handmade paper that was really popular for a while in the early aughts? Including one that had a leather wrap cover that was entirely in tengwar and cirith from Lord of the Rings - not from a website, but my own interpretation of the charts and linguistic information provided in the Lord of the Rings appendices. So that no one could read my diary.

I’ve lost the journals and the tengwar chart I’d made but I can more or less rebuild it with the variety of options you can find online, but it’s a sort of mishmash and I definitely didn’t stick to one language’s usage of certain letters, and I developed certain shorthand quirks - some of which were used by tolkien and some of which weren’t - that would make it very difficult to transcribe that journal even if you were working off the specific variant of the tengwar alphabet that I’d been using. I don’t think even I could do it anymore tbh, if I were to find that journal. In my defense, it’s been nearly 20 years since I kept it, so. XD

GET TO KNOW ME UNCOMFORTABLY WELL

#askbox meme #holy shit dude SO MANY QUESTIONS #the library alcove #audience with the gods

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blog-optimisticcoffeestuden-blog · 6 years

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quick car insurance quote

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Will i be double paying for house insurance?

I have had a 3 year personal loan on my house with a balloon payment on the end, and i am Re-financing the house to include my taxes/insurance with a conventional 30 year note. I have already paid my 2010 property Tax, and my 2011 house insurance is due March 21st. I am going to the bank today, will i actually have to pay my insurance come March 21st or is that something the bank does?""

How can I get a California Health & Life Insurance License ?

I would like to find an online course or a study at home course if possible. Also, how long does the course take ? Thank you for your help""

Does auto insurance do this? Pay or Scam?

So it always seems that my Girlfriends mom is trying to slow her down by take her money or use her to get money from the state or what not. One of the new things is that her mom says is that geico called her up and told her because my girlfriend just got her Drivers License that she has to put her under her policy. She doesnt drive her moms car and is currently looking to get a new one. Is this a normal thing for the Insurance company to call up out of no where and tell them they have to pay because there is a new licensed driver that doesnt even drive the car the policy is on or Is it another way for her mom to gain more money

Where can I buy the most affordable business liability insurance?

Hi there, I have a very small start up business and I am in need of liability insurance for a business. Does anyone know a good cheap company to use?""

Can you get life insurance on a non-relative?

I am legally still considered a minor child, although I am 16. My parents are divorced and I live with my Mom in Georgia. My natural father is dying of cancer, and lives in Illinois. Is it possible to get a life insurance policy with me as the benefactor even if me and my father live in 2 different states? Technically my Mom & Dad are divorced and she would not be able to get a life insurance on him on her own, as she is a non-relative. But I am his only son, so couldn't I get one on him? Even though by law children cannot legally engage in any sort of contract.""

Temporary car insurance for one day for 17 year old?

it's for a holiday, I believe it would be good driving experience, obviously I would have a qualified driver with me......""

Car insurance companies?

with low or 0% interest if paying monthly? is 8.5% too high or average? can they increase the interest or does it have to stay the same? does it matter if all your paying is 35 per month with interest? please help

Cheap reliable and low INSURANCE!?

OK im 17 monday after next and im a bloke, hence very expensive car insurance. I want a second hand car in the UK which is cheap and likely to keep running. Also low insurance because i am a cheapskate.""

Health insurance for 1099?

I am forming a corporation that will bring on several 1099 contractors as consultants, almost like a consortium of consultants. I'd like to offer them group health insurance. is this possible given that they are all 1099 contractors?""

Why is my insurance so expensive?

I am looking to buy an hyundai coupe 1.6 auto and I am wondering why all my insurance quotes are so expensive. These are my details. 18 years old 0 NCB Full Licence held for 8 months Only need up to 4000 miles a year car is worth 2000 Will use it for Leisure and commuting Only need Third Party Fire Theft Live in the South east, in east sussex I have been speaking to a few people who own these also and they are getting much cheaper quoted than I am getting and they need more than me like they have a 2 litre, 10,000 miles, newer model car like 2002, car is worth more. As an example a person I have been talking to is also 18 and he has got a 2002, 2 litre and his car is worth 6500 and he has a quote for 1000 and that is fully comp. This is a group 10 insurance car. I am 18, I am looking at a 1997 1.6 which is worth 2000 and my quote is 2400 from the same company and mine is a group 9 insurance. I can't seem to figure out why my quote is way above theirs.""

How could car insurance cost more a month than the value of the car?

Yes I'm under 21, No I don't have a single ticket , or driving violation . How could insurance on a 500 dollar cherokee cost 290$ a month? In two months thats the value of the car! Its BS there has to be a way to get insurance for cheaper than that. Anybody know of any place? And please don't say Classic insurance as all of them you have to be 25 or older.""

Life insurance for seniors?

does anybody know any good life insurance for seniors? i need to try and help my parents some life insurance

quick car insurance quote

Cheap motorbike insurance ?

Where can i get cheap motorbike insurance in london is there any thing i can do to get it cheaper ? UK only

Can someone recommend affordable health insurance?

I lost my job. COBRA is too expensive. Are there any high deductible plans? I really only want coverage in the event of a serious illness. I live in NJ.

Will my insurance go up due to points on my license?

I am a 22 year old male. Was cited for going 25.5 miles over the speed limit on a freeway. Plead guilty. And 4 points were assessed on my license. This is the first time any points have been on my license. My question is will my insurance go up do to this and if so how much could I expect? Thanks Also, if anyone knows of anything I can do to keep my insurance from going up, please let me know.""

Gettting car insurance for more than one car?

si my big brother has a BMW series 3 and got the insurance done for it through my dad i've not long passed my test and have been ask to buy a MG TF and was wondering would i still be abel to get insurance through my dad as well even though my big brother had insurance through him for his car?

I got an insurance quote for a 1990 mustang gt at 225 a month. im 17 how do i get lower?

i want a foxbody so bad. nothing will stop me from getting one except insurance rates with my dad. he is being stiff about a mustang in general so i need a low insurance rate to ...show more

How much would insurance be and oil changes?

I am thinking about buy a 2004 mustang convertible I am 16 it will be under my parents name how much would insurance be on it if it was a v6 and how much would it be for a v8 and how much would oil changes and tires be. And would a camaro of the same year would it be higher insurance or a 2004 challenger what one would be cheaper for insurance and we have the money for any but what one is cheaper for insurance and we live in nebraska in a small town

Good used sports car that won't jack up my insurance?

I am 17 and getting my license in november and I want to buy sports car (ex:mustang) that won't jack up my insurance, and won't break down all the time, my budget is about 12,000. Any recommendations?""

Why does your motorcycle insurance ask whether you're married or single?

Why would this affect your insurance cost?

Does MetLife car insurance cover household members?

I recently obtained my Massachusetts Junior Operator License. My mom has metlife car insurance and I'm trying to figure out if I'm covered on the insurance. The metlife website says that it covers you, members of your family that live in your house, and anyone who uses your car with your permission Does that mean that I'm already covered or do I need to be listed under her insurance policy?""

Asking all female drivers under 25- Whats a cheap car insurer?

Asking all female drivers under 25!! Does anyone know of or have been with any cheap car insurance companies? Ive already checked quite a few but they seem really expensive...Please help!

Motorcycle insurance?

progressive is quoting me at $20 a month for bare minimum coverage for a 2010 yamaha r1. I'm 18 years old and single. how is this even possible? am i reading something wrong? this price just seems absurdly low to me

How much insurance for a subaru wrx sti?

i'm getting the subaru as a first car hopefully

My medical insurance company ask for homeowner insurance policy?

I fell on my deck, and went through surgery, the total medical expense is about 25K. Now my medical insurance company is asking for homeowner insurance policy. I am not sure how to handle it to avoid any potential cost to me such as deductible or premium increase. Is the medical insurance policy the primary or the homeowner insurance policy for this case? Thanks

How can i get cheaper car insurance?

Ok so i'll be 17 soon and i sooooo want to drive. I found a nice car, a peugeot 307 five door 1.6 car for 2700, insurance group 4. it's a great looking car, but when i filled in details on gocompare, tescocompare etc for insurance it came up as at least 15,000 for fully comp. other cars are similar prices. i put a fake birthday in so i was 17 on the system. How can i MASSIVELY reduce the cost? i dont want tips that might save 100 or 200 pounds, but something more reasonable!!! Also im a very sensible person and will be a good safe driver not a boy racer lol!""

How much does it cost to own a classic car?

So I was on craigslist looking at Camaros for fun. I came across a 1979 Camaro Z28. The car was completely redone in 2001 and a new 350 crate engine was put in it in 2003. The car has new leaf springs, suspension bushings and tires on it. The new engine and trans has just under 45,000 miles on it as well. The seller is asking $5500. Ive driven it and am pleased. The car seems to be strong and is of good quality. If I were to get this car it would only be brought out on nice days, probably over the summer. Next year the car would be 35 yrs old so im assuming its considered a classic . What would be a good estimate for 50yr old man in Pennsylvania to own this type of a car that is rarely driven. Again the car is in good shape, only a little rust and probably wouldnt even see 1000 miles a year. Just curious for some input.""

How much would 21 yr olds pay for car insurance with no credits?

How much can i expect to pay for storage insurance?

I plan on getting a street bike, and sitting my truck. I pay 1400 dollars a year for full coverage right now.""

Where can I find car insurance who will LISTEN to my circumstances.?

I have been driving for over 20 years but the last 5 years have been on my husbands policy for company cars. Before then I had full no claims but lost them as we lived in Singapore on a 3 year work contract, I was driving there also with a Singapore driving licence. When we came back to the UK I have been driving brand new top of the range 2.0 cars.(accident free) Now I need to get car insurance but the set forms do not take any of this into account. Hence the hefty quotes. I have only 1 controversial speeding penalty. Why dont you insurers out there LISTEN !!!""

Health insurance for geriatrics.?

My mom is going to be 64 years old in December and has being diagnosed with high blood pressure. She doesn't qualify for medicaid yet; which insurance company should I contact in Florida, so she can get an individual health insurance?""

Should I purchase car insurance?

I'm buying a car on Saturday and want to arrive with proof of insurance so I can drive the car off the lot ASAP. I was given a quote for a vehicle I won't be getting. The year will be the same year though. I'm also not sure about plates and registration.

Car Insurance in India?

Hi, I have bought a new car Ritz and along with that, the dealer has provided me Insurance from royal sundaram. I heard that insurance companies pays only fifty percent of repair ...show more""

How will this speeding ticket affect my insurance?

I got a speeding ticket. The insurance is under my fathers name. Will the insurance price go up because of MY speeding ticket?

How much would it cost to insure an infiniti g35?

Im a 16 year old boy, and Im buying an 2004 infiniti for 2,350 from my dads friend with 112k mileages on it, and I'm wondering what the insurance rate would be in NYC? Im paying for the car, my dad is paying for the insurance""

I hit someones car who doesn't have car insurance?

so at school in the parking lot i hit a parked car and left it there. a hit and run i guess. i told someone who told the girl. so she told me she would go halfs with me on the damages. the damages is $1,000. i asked her again if she would go halfs with me and she said she couldnt. i dont have $1000 and i found out she doesnt even have car insurance (through someone else). i live in MA and its illegal if you dont have car insurance. your license will be suspended. so im trying to get her to admit that she doesnt have car insurance. so then what do i do? any advice?""

How much do you pay for car insurance?

how old are you? what company you with? what car you drive? are you the only driver under this insurance?

quick car insurance quote

How long do you have to report an accident to your insurance company?

Insurance Claims

Pregnant and no insurance....HELP!!!!!!!!!!?

I dont have insurance and I am 4 months pregnant. I reside in NC and I cant get medicaid because I havent been a legal resident for at least 5 yrs. I have been looking online and many health plans dont accept or cover a women when she is already pregnant. I feel like being a single mother because the father of the baby didnt want me to keep the baby because is not in a financially stable situation now and he had already 4 kids from a previous marriage and relationship so he said that I had to live with my decision on my own basically. He told me that because we are not married I cant use his health insurance! Like I said I am telling myself that I am all alone on this and I am desperate. Costs of delivery can be extremely expensive and of course I cant afford them. I need help please! I went to see the office of social services here in charlotte and they told me that I cant because i havent been a resident for 5 yrs at least!!!! About the father: he is an a**hole!!!!!!

Indiana resident buy car insurance in Chicago?

I go to college in Indiana and hold an Indiana license. I'm working in Chicago this summer and thinking about buying an affordable used car here since there are way more options in the city. I'll go back to Indiana in the fall and would like to register the car as an Indiana one. Since I can't drive the car without an insurance, I wonder if I can buy insurance here in Chicago and still register it as an Indiana car? Thanks a lot.""

Should we have whole life insurance?

My husband is 26 yrs old and he bought whole life insurance. I tried to tell him to get term sicne we are so young, but he wouldn't listen. Can anyone help me?""

Do life insurance companies check your medical records after you die?

Let's say that you get life insurance and claim to be a non-smoker. Then let's say that you start smoking or resume smoking. Assuming that your medical records show that you ...show more

Muscle/Sports car insurance question...?

Would a 1971 Ford Torino 4 door sedan be considered a sports/muscle car to insurance companies? I am trying to find a way around the muscle car insurance rates while still having a muscleish car. Any other car suggestions would be great.

Question about car insurance/registration in Connecticut?

I live in Connecticut, and I just got a car. I am only 17 so the car cannot go in my name because I am not 18. My dad bought the car, but I live with my mom (my parents are divorced), and my license says my mom's address. Is there any way for me to have to car garaged at my mom's house but it be in my dad's name/can I go on my dad's insurance? Reminder: this is for Connecticut!!! I really can't find this information online anywhere, so if anyone knows the answer/ has had this problem please let me know! Thanks!!!!!!""

Car insurance whats the diff?

I got two insurance quotes and one is for 20/40 liability (the state min) and the other is for 100/300 what exactly does this mean. I know its the amount that they cover, but I only have liability so whats the difference?? Please, help.""

How much will car insurance cost me if im 16 and getting a Scion Tc?

- 16 Year old ; Male - Just got my license - From Massachusetts - Took Drivers Ed I'm looking at a Scion Tc. The money I have saved up is there for the car. I am just worried on ...show more

Best way to file claim for Allstate home owner's insurance?

My husband and I have minor storm damage to the roof over our master bedroom. And now water has managed to get into the wall and is making the sheet rock bubble up, as well as causing cracks in the ceiling in that one particular spot. Allstate sent an insurance agent out and they said that after our $1,000 deductible they are only willing to pay about $400 over the cost to fix it. So...should I get a contractor to assess and give me a quote, and then re-file a claim with the insurance adjuster? If so, how should I go about doing that?""

Homeowners insurance in NE ALABAMA?

single f close tofire dpmamily prime residence completly redone frame single story built in mid 50 close to fire dpm town valley head zip 35989 market value 100k dont want replacement value 5k deductble need most reasonable quote

Short Term health care insurance plan in California?

I am looking to get insurance for a short period of time - 2 months. Which plan and provider be appropriate ?

Questions About Car Insurance?

I'm trying to see how much would car insurance be for me and my fiancee. She's 20 and I'm 21 both in college. I will be a first time driver and she had hee license for a couple of years and we live in the State of New York. How does insurance work? What's the best company for this? Thanks and God Bless!

Need condo insurance in Florida?

Hi, can anyone point me to any web sites or insurance agents in Florida that are still writing insurance for condos? Thanks!""

How to get cheaper insurance on a Motorcycle?

I'm 24, 25 in 10 days. I have wanted a motorcycle for the longest time, I have rode dirt bikes most of my life. I plan on getting a 600cc bike, but can't understand why the rates are so high. I hear about people who are 18 who are only paying $90. a month but they want to charge me $200.+ I have called around and just would like advice for those who might be paying less for insurance. The bikes I would like are 2006-2009 Yamaha R6/CBR600/GSX 600. Let me know if anyone has one of these and is a new rider and got pretty cheap insurance. I currently have Geico, and even with a clean record and multiple cars they still want a ridiculous amount.""

Medical Insurance Question?!?

I'm 24, and I've been reading a lot of posts online about people who have many health ailments and do not have insurance to get treated or go to the ER then have a massive bill afterwards. I don't understand why these individuals are not hunting around for the cheapest medical insurance they can find prior. There are individual plans out there, directly through the insurance companies, also family plans. You can pick and choose your premiums/deductibles/co-pays, hunt around for what suits your needs best. The single plans especially, can be and most of the time are, affordable. I don't understand why people do not apply for basic health insurance that would cover them in an emergency, or for general routine health-care. Premiums can be as low as 60-100 a month for a single person. Please can someone explain to me why these people are not taking advantage of what is out there? Or even possibly applying for the government assistance plans if they're not employed, especially after an ER visit with no insurance? This is an honest question. Thanks""

For a first time driver who is 28 who is good for cheap car insurance?

In the uk

Health Insurance company for a graduate student? What one is best as far as price and coverage??

Anyone have any suggestions for a good health insurance company for a graduate student? The coverage from the school is one thousand a semester and thats way to much.

Who offers the best life insurance in Illinois?

simple enough. ive done my research and the best i can find is either American Income Life insurance or State farm. anyone have either of these and think they are reasonable?

How to get Cheap Car Insurance? This is True...?

Hi, Ive recently be searching on comparison websites to find myself a cheaper quote, I started doing my searches at the start of the Year, Ive noticed that I would have been paying 300 cheaper during December and January time if I was to get insurance in those months and When I did the same search in May and June - Summer period it became 600 more expensive. So give it ago on confused website and see for yourself your insurance will become a lot cheaper if you insure between these months.""

A good begginer bike thats fast and cheap on insurance?

I'd like to no what kinda sports bike/cruiser would be a good starter bike that's cheap on insurance and gas, I don't want anything shaped like a harley more of a sports bike shape. Any suggestions?""

Best Car/SUV/Pick Up-Trucks for Insurance(Young Driver)?

Im turning 20 in a months time, and i will be purchasing a used Car, i will have about $10,000CDN to spend. I found cars/SUV that im interested in, and I've got Quotes off of web sites on how much insurance would be, and so far there all pretty expensive. What Model would be a good choice?""

Best life insurance policy and mediclaim policy?

Recently my father (age 62) surrendered the insurance policy without my knowledge.. I decide to take a new one for life and health insurance..Please suggest the best one....

Car insurance under a company policy?

I've never owned a car in the UK and may be joining a company where I will need one. This company offers a car allowance and I'll probably use the car for business. Would I be covered under the company car insurance policy or would I still need to get a policy myself? I'm trying to avoid the massive bill given that I have no UK driving history :-)

""Got into car accident, my fault not my insurance?""

the car and insurance was in my moms name, i was not listed as a driver, ran red light, car smashed me in side, his car somehow flipped over, will insurance pay for both cars,it was on full coverage""

quick car insurance quote

Health insurance?

sometimes insurance doesnt cover some medical things. my mom said that she knew a man who had cancer in his eye and his insurance wouldnt cover it because they said it was comestic. does it depend on the company? and usually what other things does health insurance not cover?

Anyone know how to get mental health treatment with no insurance in California?

I have depression, anxiety ADHD and I think bipolar disorder. I dont have insurance except urgent care visits. I make a little less than $300 a week. I feel so down these days and really need some help. Even though everything in my life is going well I still have these issues. Any ideas?""

How to get cheaper insurance with an impaired driving/hit and run charges?

I currently have impaired driving/hit and run charges on my drivers license as of august 2010. How can I possibly get cheaper insurance. The cheapest quote I got was 9 grand.. How long is my insurance going to be this bad for??? Help!!!

Car insurance for first car?

hello! How much did you paid for car insurance at the first time when you get your first car?

How many percentage in texas citizens buy life insurance?

how many people in texas buy life insurance.

What's the cheapest and most reliable auto insurance company in LA?

i'm with state farm and it's kinda expensive, so i'm thinking of switching to another insurance company.""

""I need some cheap car insurance. I have a 2005 suburvan, a 97 chev pickup and a 97 mercury tracer.?""

I need some cheap car insurance. I have a 2005 suburvan, a 97 chev pickup and a 97 mercury tracer.?""

How much is this car worth to sell this car to the insurance.?

It is a 2005 Toyota Corolla CE with a salvage title. It has 76000 miles just body damages. Thanks in advance

State based car insurance?

Looking for new car insurance that covers only a couple states for a cheaper price. Looking for one that covers in FL

Does a man have a right to control what his wife eats if he pays her health insurance?

For example, if she is a stay at home mom and he works full time and pays extra money to have her put on his insurance. I say this because eating right is an important part of being healthy and to be honest I don't want my future wife to be overweight.""

Refund on car insurance?

Basically i got my car insurance on the 21st may. And i payed the amount in full. I asked, when the documents ill be arriving and they sed with 5working days. But nothing came. I went on holiday on 5th june and i didnt come back until 15th july. And i find that my postbox is damaged and all my post went back to the royal mail. But i still didnt recieved anything from the car imsurance and because it was a renewal quote, i thought probably they dont need anything of me, coz they have already got my detail from last year and thats why i didnt recieve anything. And this was my first time i paid in full. So i thought they only need my signature when im paying monthly. Anyways i went through my spam mails outa curiosity and i find one email from car insurance that says that my car insurance is cancelled. I called them up, but they arent willing to reinstate a cancelled policy. Now im confused, whether i can get my money bac for the rest of the year or not. And if so, how much will they deduct etc. Ive not had any accidents or motor convictions for the past 3years of driving. And i cant find the cancellation policy on there website and i dnt have any paper work that explains it either. I know i can call up. BUt im curious, whether anyone knows about the idea behind this and how it works. Thanks x""

Insurance companies use credit reports?

Just got notice from my insurance company (auto only) that they are going to be ordering insurance loss history reports and motor vehicle reports. They will help determine our eligibility for insurance and the price we may be charged. All well and good. But here's the kicker, the part I don't get. They also say that they may order additional consumer reports that include our credit info. They may use a credit-based insurance score based on that info. And they may use a 3rd party to develop our credit-based insurance score. Is this normal? Do many companies do this? Is this something that anyone else is outraged about, and is anyone fighting this? I don't have much cause for concern really, but I don't get what one thing has to do with the other. You could explain that to me too! If it matters, this is American Family Insurance. Does State Farm do this?""

Which car is the most reliable? and insurance wise.?

03 Infiniti g35 coupe. 05 mazda rx8. 05 Audi a4. 05 Acura tl. Nissan 350z. 05 cadillac sts. 03 bmw 3 series. 05 nissan maxima. 06 subaru wrx impreza and legacy. 05 ford mustang. Also add which one is insurance wise cheaper if you can.

How much would my insurance cost if i an a new driver age 16 in CT without a car ( i just use my parents car)?

My parents are good drivers and have no real accident record and i havre no criminal record and get decent grades. my dad saqys rates would go up 1500 dollars is he being accuratge?

Driving without insurance?

I am a licensed driver and the car i drive is insured, but i never bought insurance. How much trouble will I get into if I get into an car accident? Oh and I am 18 and live in Minnesota""

Cheap cars to insure at 21?

ok so i am looking for a cheap car that will not cost me for insurance the cheaper the better the car does not need to be a top of the range brand spanking new thing for all i care it can be from 1970 as long as the insurance for them are cheap

Dual Car Insurance trouble?

I had insurance through a company called Sunset Plaza Insurance, and only agreed to do a 6 month period (from 12/08 to 06/09). I moved during the time, and never received a renewal notice at my new address, even after I gave them my new address. However, I found out that for the past 6 months (06/09 - 12/09) they have been charging me for insurance. But I never signed a renewal consent or anything! I remember explicitly saying that I only wanted the insurance for a 6 month period too! What are my options? Please..any advice would help!""

What cars are cheap to insure?

What cars are cheap to insure for a 17 year old male living in the City? Like what brand and what specific car? List me a few. Thanks

How much would insurance be on a 2007 scion tc in Texas?

Im 19 and about to purchase a 07 tc, but I dont know the average cost of insurance for a tc would be""

How much would insurance cost me on a 2008 Mustang GT?

I'm 17, I've never had a ticket. If I were to get it under my mom's name with me as a driver, how much do you think it'd be?""

Lower cost health insurance recommendations needed?

I'm hoping to be working in a few more days thru a staffing agency but their insurance isnt very good, over $800/month for my son and I and VERY limited medical. He has ADHD and has to have coverage. I doubt if we qualify for any state assistance too. But I've looked at a few individual plans thru various carries and they arent much better... for just over $350/month we're both covered (not including dental or vision) but the deductible is SUPER high does anyone know of any insurances with individual plans with a decent price and coverage. We're in California""

""When you had your first car, how much were you paying for the insurance?

im just gathering statistics

Primerica life insurance help!!!?

ok well i was currently covered under Primerica untill Febuary, when i was terminated due to non payment. What are the steps that Primerica takes to reinstate a policy.""

""In terms of automobile insurance, California is a:?

At Fault state No-Fault state None of them Common Fault state San Andreas Fault State

Can you cancel your car insurance for a month and the get it back?

I'm going out of state for like 3-4 weeks and I was wondering if there's anyway to stop your car insurance for just that month and then Get it back when I come back without having to pay for it since that's kind of a waste. I have allstate

quick car insurance quote

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/do-you-lock-doors-between-your-main-house-affect-home-william-willis/"

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learnclimate · 7 years

Text

Invention and Innovation in the Military: The Adoption of the F-16

This paper was originally submitted as a term paper on December 5, 2008 for the course Technology and War (POLS 350T), taught by Professor Aaron Karp at Old Dominion University. He was one of my favorite professors, and this was one of my favorite courses, and I must acknowledge his guidance in both selecting the topic and finding the resources.

I’m posting the paper because I was reminded of it during the Supply Chain Innovation course I’m taking through FutureLearn.com. Hopefully this article helps stimulate you thinking about what drives innovation! In my research, I found the economic theories related to innovation to be most useful.

If I were going to rewrite this paper, I would also try to incorporate some of Georg Simmel’s concepts of “The Stranger,” but that’s a project for another day!!

Introduction

This paper uses the case study of the F-16 as a backdrop to answer the question of what promotes invention, innovation, and change within the military. This paper will examine the inventive and innovative thinking of John Boyd, the mind behind the F-16, as well as the circumstances that led to the development and adoption of the F-16. This paper will look at the adoption of the F-16 not only in terms of military theory, from the Morison and Wilson readings, but also in terms of economic theories of invention and innovation. This paper will answer the question of how the F-16 was invented and adopted into the Air Force. Each theory addresses certain issues within the situation, but ultimately, the economic theories are the most useful and comprehensive because they examine the processes of invention and innovation themselves.

The US Air Force and the Adoption of the F-16

Crucial to understanding the development of the F-16 is an understanding of the man behind the idea, John Boyd. Boyd was born in 1927 in Erie, Pennsylvania.1 When Boyd was three, his father died, so his mother was hard pressed to raise five children.2 His mother raised him to feel that he should be “a man of principle,” as well as integrity, even when others attacked him for his beliefs.3 This attitude prepared him for the battles he would fight later in life. He enlisted in the Army in 1945 and served in Japan.4 After serving shortly in the Army, he went to college, enrolled in the Air Force ROTC.5 He graduated college in 1952 and went to Williams Air Force Base (AFB) in Arizona.6 After training, he was sent to serve in Korea as a fighter pilot.7 Next, because of his capabilities as a pilot, he attended the United States Air Force Fighter Weapons School at Nellis AFB, Nevada, from which he graduated in 1954.8 After he graduated he remained at the school, teaching there until 1960.9

In 1956, when Boyd published his first article, “A Proposed Plan for Ftr. Vs. Ftr. Training,” it appealed to young pilots, but his critics dismissed him because he lacked shooting experience.10 Despite the criticism, he was asked to become the director of Academics at the Fighter Weapons School (FWS) at Nellis Air Force Base.11 When it came time to leave, “he realized he would have to write a tactics manual,” so somebody could teach in his footsteps.12 Unfortunately, the Air Force told him he would have to undertake the time-consuming process in his own time.13 Even worse, when it came time for approval, his book was almost passed over in favor of a far inferior one; he had to go over his commanding officer’s head to get it approved.14 When the “Aerial Attack Study” was published, instead of praising the work for codifying an art, critics said it proved Boyd was a “one-dimensional officer,” focused on only air-to-air combat, who did not understand the basic mission of the Air Force.15 To Boyd, however, the “Aerial Attack Study” was just the first step; he felt “that there had to be a better method of articulating the contents, maybe even something beyond the maneuver-countermaneuver strategy, something that went beyond the mathematical formulae to the core, the very essence, of combat flying.” 16

Boyd’s next major accomplishment was the E-M Theory. His breakthrough was thinking about dog fighting in terms of energy instead of power and airspeed.17 Boyd teamed up with a man named Thomas Christie, the “Finangler,” to flesh out his theory and to gain access to computers.18 He called their work the Energy-Maneuverability Theory.19 The main purpose of the theory is to “understand the full performance envelope of American aircraft.”20 He could use the theory not only to compare US and enemy technology, but also to design and back up the type of fighter plane he felt would be the best.21 Boyd began spreading the word about his theories and “as more people listened, more began to sense that Boyd’s E-M Theory was a new way of thinking about aviation,” and “as word continued to spread about this new E-M Theory, the rank of those wanting to hear the brief increased.”22 When he briefed generals, he faced disbelief.23

In 1966 he got himself ordered to the Pentagon to work on the Air Force’s new plane, the F-X.24 At the Pentagon he found himself fighting against bureaucracy and fraternity of the Air Force.25 Boyd was gaining eminence, but problems were building up around him, as Coram explains,

“Given the success of E-M, Boyd had been invited to be part of the group whose job it was to develop a design for the new fighter the Air Force wanted to build. That group, however, was dominated by people at Wright-Pat [Air Force Base] who were so embarrassed by Boyd’s E-M work that they made sure he had no influence.”26

Although he helped develop the F-X, which turned into the F-15, Boyd opposed the new plane; he felt it turned out just as bad as the rest of the Air Force planes.27 The F-15 ended up being “a single-seat fixed-wing twin-engined fighter in the 40,000-pound weight class,” but Boyd and his followers, the fighter mafia, “thought that the F-X [F-15] concept still was not austere enough.”28 Members of the fighter mafia included “Thomas Christie, a weapons analyst; Everest Riccioni, another Air Force pilot and engineer; Pierre Sprey, a weapons systems analyst, and Chuck Myers, a former test pilot and defense consultant.”29 Dörfer points out that “had the battle for a leaner, cheaper F-15 been won that year, the F-16 would probably never have gone ahead.”30 The fighter mafia had not gotten what they wanted, however, so they set out to design another fighter plane.31

The fighter mafia had a few reasons to push for a smaller fighter plane. First,

“Sprey and Boyd were convinced that if the current fighter cost trend continued, it would be economically impossible for the United States to retain approximate numerical parity with the Warsaw Pact tactical fighter force. The way to reverse this fighter cost trend and maintain parity, they reasoned, was to omit all subsystems not absolutely essential to the mission, to resist the penchant for advanced technology engines, and to eliminate requirements for complex avionics systems such as high top speeds that were seldom used militarily and in excessive ranges.”32

Secondly, because of critics of the F-15,

“the Air Force risked being handed a Navy fighter… Riccioni did not want this to happen. In the summer of 1970 Riccioni put together a study project entitled “Study to Validate the Integration of Advanced Energy-Maneuverability-Theory with Trade Off Analysis”. … Riccioni began to push his project at higher level in the Air Force. Should the F-15 have problems, and alternative would be needed.”33

Riccioni was going to be using Boyd’s E-M Theory to determine which plane would be the best for the Air Force. Unfortunatley for him, though, the Air Force did not look favorable on a potential challenge to the production of the F-15, so he got shipped out of the way to Korea.34 Another reason for the promotion of the F-16 was the possibility of sales to Europe, the arms deal Dörfer discusses. The amount being spent on aircraft production was dropping, yet “at the same time the cost explosion of weapons systems kept the production run of each system down… The U.S. aircraft industry had accordingly spent the last years eyeing the overseas market.”35 Several NATO countries were going to be replacing their planes from around 1978-1986, so around the time the F-16 was being developed it was important to be “able to offer aircraft Europeans would be able to buy.”36

Another reason for the F-16’s success was the support of Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger. He “liked the idea of less sophisticated, less expensive weapons systems in the U.S. inventory. The lightweight fighter program was his favorite program and through informal channels he stayed on top of it at all times.”37 He was the reason funding for the lightweight fighter was put back into the budget, despite the Air Force’s opposition to prototyping it.38 Money was given to an Air Force prototype study, of which one program was the development of “an operationally suitable lightweight fighter.”39 Funding was used as incentives for aerospace firms to devote their research and development (R & D) resources to the plane’s development.40

Several factors influenced the Air Force’s decision between the two prototypes, the YF-16 and the YF-17, including time, cost, the interests of European countries, and the interests of the Navy. The Air Force wanted to choose the best plane for itself, so when Congress made the suggestion that both the Air Force and the Navy use the same plane, “in order to save R&D funds,”41 the Air Force sped up its selection process to prevent the Navy from being able to make the choice for them.42 Also, the US had promised the NATO countries to use the same plane, in order to take advantage of “standardization and interoperability.”43 Europe wanted a quick selection, so Schlesinger “urged the Air Force to go ahead and make their own choice. In fact he told the Air Force not to wait for the Navy in the name of commonality.”44 This actually worked out for the Air Force in terms of cost, because it cost the same amount to buy “650 F-16s for the Air Force and 800 F-17s for the Navy” as it would to buy “650 F-17s for the Air Force and 850 F-17s for the Navy.”45 On January 13, 1975, Schlesinger “formally announced the choice of the F-16.”46

Morison’s Ideas and the Adoption of the F-16

Morison examines the idea of innovation by a society through the lens of gunnery reform in the Navy. First, he discusses the invention itself. At target practice one day, Admiral Sir Percy Scott noticed one man doing better than everyone else because while he aimed unconsciously “working his elevating gear back and forth in a partially successful effort to compensate for the roll of the vessel.”47 Scott saw how to apply this to all of the ships gunnery: “he changed the gear ratio in the elevating gear … so that a gunner could easily elevate and depress the gun to follow a target throughout the roll. Second, he rigged his telescopes so that they would not be influenced by the recoil of the gun.”48 Morison points out that “Scott was not responsible for the invention of the basic instruments that made the reform in gunnery possible… Scott’s contribution was to bring these three elements appropriately modified into a combination that made continuous-aim firing possible for the first time.”49 What allowed for the change to take place, Morison explains was “the intricate interaction of chance, the intellectual climate, and Scott’s mind.”50

Boyd, like Scott and his American counterpart Sims, was not responsible for inventing the basic instruments that made the F-16 possible. People knew how to build planes and they knew how to fly already. What Boyd contributed was his E-M Theory. His theory was the new idea that allowed him to look at the existing technology differently. It allowed him to compare planes to one another mathematically, and also showed him what kind of plane would be best. His conclusion was the F-16. Boyd and Sims are similar in many other ways as well.

The implementation of ideas was similar in the cases of Sims and Boyd. When Sims first proposed his changes, “there was no response… The reports were simply filed away and forgotten.”51 Sims was upset at being brushed aside, so he moved on to phase two: he accumulated more data in support of his argument and made his argument more shocking, in more urgent need of a response.52 Boyd said he was able to best his adversaries because he did his homework, he made sure he knew exactly what he was saying and did not let his enemies ever get the upper hand.53 When Boyd got the better of someone, he “hosed” them54; in Sims’s second stage, he talked of wanting “scalps” in revenge.55 Similar to Boyd’s spreading his idea through briefings and leaking “brothers and sisters,” Sims also “sent copies of his reports to other officers in the fleet.”56 Once his ideas were out, the men in Washington had to do something to address the issues he raised.57 When Washington officials could not rationally refute Sims claims, they resorted to “name-calling.”58 Sims “was told in official endorsements on his reports that there were others quite as sincere and loyal as he and far less difficult; he was dismissed as a crackbrained egotist; he was called a deliberate falsifier of evidence.”59 These tactics only hardened Sims against his enemies, and he wrote the President, Theodore Roosevelt.60 Roosevelt, in response, “installed him as Inspector of Target Practice, a post the naval officer held throughout the remaining six years of the administration. And when he left, after many spirited encounters we cannot here investigate, he was universally acclaimed as ‘the man who taught us how to shoot’.”61

The ideas of both Boyd and Sims were not accepted by their peers. The reasons Morison offers to explain why Sims’s peers resisted his ideas generally hold true for Boyd as well. First, “the source of the proposed reform was an obscure.”62 Sims and Boyd, when they first began their works, were low ranking officers that had not distinguished themselves. Sims, as well as Boyd, was “criticizing gear and machinery designed by the very men in the bureaus to whom he was sending his criticisms.”63 Morison continues that “Sims was seeking to introduce what he claimed were improvements in a field where improvements appeared unnecessary.”64 To an outsider, it may have appeared that improvements in aircraft were necessary, but from the inside, from a general’s point of view, a fighter like the F-16 was not necessary, so it was dismissed. As Morison puts it, “these limited identifications brought men into conflict with each other, and the conflict prevented them from arriving at a common acceptance of a change that presumably, as men interested in our total national defense, they would all find desirable.”65

Morison also concludes that the Navy resisted change because “It is a society. Men spend their whole lives in it and tend to find the definition of their whole being within it.”66 He continues, “Military organizations are societies built around and upon the prevailing weapons systems. Intuitively and quite correctly, the military man feels that a change in weapon portends a change in the arrangement of his society.”67 Also, “The deadlock between those who sought change and those who sought to retain things as they were was broken only by an appeal to a superior force, a force removed from and unidentified with the mores, conventions, and devices of the society.”68 These statements hold true both for Sims’s and Boyd’s cases. For Sims, the prevailing technology was the cannons the Navy already had, for Boyd, the F-15. For Sims, the outside source was Theodore Roosevelt; for Boyd the sources were the media, Congress, Colin Powell, Dick Cheney, and James Schlesinger.

Morison says that an organization could make itself more innovative by

“defining for itself its grand object and see to it that that grand object is communicated to every member of the group. Thus defined and communicated, it might serve as a unifying agent against the disruptive local allegiances of the inevitable smaller elements that compose any group. It may also serve as a means to increase the acceptability of any change that would assist in the more efficient achievement of the grand object.”69

The idea of the grand object would unify the group, and decrease the resistance to change. Change would no longer create crises of identity because change would only make obtaining the grand object easier rather than change the identification of the individuals achieving the stated grand object. He also stresses a “greater reverence for the mere process of living in a society… and a relatively smaller respect for the attachment to any special product of a society.”70 In other words, emphasizing the means rather than the ends.

In terms of Morison’s gunnery example, the Navy would have adapted if the men in Washington were less concerned with the current organizational structure, the ends, and more concerned with how to most efficiently protect the seas, their grand object, or their means. If this were the case, then the society would have become its own “outside enforcer.” In terms of innovation in the Air Force, if it had been more focused on its grand objective, the protection of the United States through the air, rather then focused on the preservation of the production of the F-15, then it would have no doubt been more easily changed by Boyd. The reality was, however that people were going to protect their individual projects “against its enemies in Congress and rival services as if its very success and the success of the individual in charge were linked, as indeed they are.”71 Unless these ideas change, or an outside force steps in that individuals cannot protect themselves from, then any new invention or innovation in the Air Force will likely see the same kind of resistance to its adoption into policy that Boyd faced.

Finally, problems with this theory occur when it is the grand object itself that needs reforming. To put it in terms of Morison’s example, the ideal grand object of the ideal navy is to protect the seas in defense of the state. Unfortunately, the US Air Force, and the world in general, are far from ideal. What ends up being the real and actual grand object is maintenance of the system itself. The rewards are power and prestige, and these are obtained not through accomplishing the ideal grand object, but through working the system. The innovator is the person who works, consciously or not, toward some goal different from the real grand object, probably towards a goal closer to the ideal grand object. In this case, the innovator was John Boyd. In a sense, the aircraft reform did become an identity crisis, but in terms of identity with the grand object rather than identity with an invention or a way of life. A reform of the grand object is hard to achieve from within a society, so Boyd did have to resort to external sources of power to make any change. In his case the outside powers were Secretary of Defense Schlesinger and the media, but any type of power would do.

Wilson’s Ideas and the Adoption of the F-16

In his article “Innovation in Organization: Notes Toward a Theory,” James Q. Wilson explains the characteristics of organizations that innovate. He focuses on innovation in organizations in general, rather than the military specifically. He puts forth three central hypotheses and then tacks on ten more additional hypotheses that relate to the first three. His first three hypotheses are summed up in the following statement:

“The greater the diversity of the organization (in either its incentive system or its task structure or both), the greater the likelihood that some members will conceive major innovations, the greater the likelihood that some members will propose innovations, and the less likelihood that the organization will adopt the innovations.”72

Basically, an organization that is more diverse will come up with more ideas for innovation, but at a certain point, it will become too big to effectively implement the proposals. In Wilson’s words, “unless … numerical values could be attached to the rates of proposal and adoption … there will be no way to determine the optimum point where, in effect, a marginal increase in the probability of additional proposals will just equal the marginal decline in the probability of their adoption.”73 The likelihood of being able to generate such numbers is next to impossible.74 He pessimistically states that for this reason the theories presented will not be of much use to organizations.75 In a qualitative, rather than quantitative, evaluation, however, such theories still prove useful.

According to Wilson, organizations that are most likely to adopt a change are those that a) face a crisis, b) rely on intangible incentives, c) are sensitive to user needs, d) are decentralized, e) encourage participation, f) have “broad, diffuse goals,” and/or g) have uncertain incentives.76 Some of these characteristics are discussed in more detail shortly. Some of these ideas hold true in the case of the F-16, but others, not so much. First, the US Air Force showed some sensitivity to user needs in this case, at least to the needs of NATO forces, if not to the needs of its own fighter pilots. Second, the Air Force was also facing a bit of a crisis- severe criticism of their own planes as well as rising costs of technology. A crisis, Wilson states, “leads members to devote themselves to organizational interests rather than to task interests.”77 If an organization were able to focus on organizational goals, even without a crisis it would also be more acceptant of changes. During this crisis, however, in order to survive, the Air Force needed to innovate by developing less expensive planes. The F-16, small, lightweight, and basic, was the answer to their problems. Despite the crisis, however, the Air Force still resisted the switch and it was up to the interference out outside entities like Schlesinger to enforce a change. Wilson’s ideas help to explain the resistance- the Air Force is very centralized, it does not encourage participation, especially by lower ranking officials, and their incentive systems promote maintenance of the status quo rather than innovation and change.

Wilson’s keenest observation is that uncertain incentives lead to more frequent innovation.78 This puts innovation more in terms of society, where incentives are never guaranteed. He say that “if incentives are not routinely received for the performance of specified acts, there will be a tendency for members either to quit the organization… or to bid competitively with one another for a share of available incentives by advancing proposals.”79 People cannot quit society, unless, of course, they die, so their only option left is to innovate. This observation explains the duality Morison discusses of how people yearn for stability in the past, yet continually invent and innovate. Morison accounts for the duality in terms of human nature and the prepared mind, but does not go into detail about what drives humans to want to innovate in the first place. Wilson’s observation puts this conflicting human nature in terms of economics. Most basically, economics studies how societies distribute their scarce resources, or benefits, to unlimited human wants. Because resources are limited, incentives are never guaranteed, and it is the innovator who will have an advantage over his fellows in receiving incentives, or benefits. Therefore, it is man’s competition for resources that drives innovation. So while man may enjoy the comforts of living with the status quo, it is innovation which ensures his survival.

According to Wilson, decentralized organizations are also more likely to adopt changes because “the organization as a whole reduces the number of wills that must be concerted before a proposal generated within the subunit can be adopted.”80 An example of the benefits of a decentralized organization can be seen in the federal system of the United States. It would be too difficult for one overpowering central authority to be able to decide on the needs of every particular region, so power is divided among states. This way, someone wanting to institute a change in California will not have to face resistance from people in, say, Vermont. The major downfall is that it becomes harder for the organization to stay unified.81 In the United States’ case, this issue had to be settled by the Civil War. Of course, the US Air Force did not face this problem in the case of the F-16. To ensure innovation in the future, however, the organization would have to face these issues.

Finally, it is important to note that Wilson assumes rational behavior of actors in an organization, rational meaning acting to maximize benefits while minimizing costs.82 This assumption is a major drawback of his theories. Though not explicitly stated, but on the same line of thought, this assumption means that when every member works in his or her own self-interest, the organization as a whole will benefit. As seen in the tragedy of the commons, however, this assumption is very wrong: everyone working in their own self interest is not a guarantee that the organization as a whole will benefit. Rationality also assumes that people have full knowledge. Sometimes people think they are acting in their own best interests, or in the best interests of the organization, but they are misinformed, so actually do more damage than good. Other times, the perceived benefit or incentive, is maintenance of the status quo, a factor that works directly against acceptance of an innovation. When Wilson’s assumptions are not met, the theories are not as useful. Boyd, for example was designing the F-16 because of his own self-interest to do the right thing. He felt that the F-16 was in the best interests of the Air Force, but the Air Force did not agree. Boyd was right, but the Air Force fought his innovations every step of the way as they were trying to protect their own interests in the F-15. In this case, everyone working in their own self interest led to serious conflict that required the intervention of Secretary of Defense Schlesinger.

Economic Theory and the Adoption of the F-16

Economic theories on invention and innovation focus on the processes themselves, in contrast to Wilson’s theories which focus on the organizations and Morison’s theories which focus more on the efforts of the individual. Economics explains the need for continual innovation:

“With the process of innovation, differentiation and emulation, products are subject to economical and technical obsolescence. Their commercial life becomes limited. Any economic advantage is likely to be temporary. Once a new product or variant of a new product is seen to be successful, rivals will begin to encroach. They will copy, modify and improve, so that they may share the earning power of the new product. In these circumstances companies are only likely to retain a lead by continual change. A process of continuous innovation may therefore be generated by the activities of discovery, marketing and emulation.”83

If one replaces the word “companies” with the word “militaries,” the same general principles hold true. Instead of trying to gain an advantage in earning power, militaries are searching to gain an advantage of force over their rivals. Each rival is searching for power over the others. So, when a military power sees a technology being used successfully, in order to maintain its advantage of power, it must adapt. It must continuously innovate.

Economics also explains how the ideas of invention and innovation fit together in this environment of continual change. Because “invention is the first stage in the process of technological innovation,” it will be discussed first.84 P. S. Johnson defines invention as “the creation of an idea and its first reduction to practice in a physical form.”85 Invention, he continues, “involves a human agency in the creation of a physical form that did not previously exist.”86 Invention must be new, but Johnson distinguishes between “novelty arising from ‘acts of skill’ and that rising from ‘acts of insight’. The former is ‘a normal and continuous consequence of the skilled activities of engineers and technicians’, undertaken within the environment of established processes and methods” while the latter “would not be the normal outcome of the application of skills previously acquired, … They are made possible ‘by some special constellation of circumstances that invites or requires a special response’.”87 Both concepts are germane to the idea of invention, but Johnson acknowledges that “major inventions may be usable only if further acts of insight occur.”88 In terms of Morison’s example, the act of skill was the individual gunner working the elevating gear, while the act of insight was Scott’s bringing together of various elements, such as the gun, the gear, and the telescope.89 In terms of the F-16, the act of skill would be Boyd’s skills as a fighter pilot and instinct in knowing what would make a good plane, while the act of insight was his development of the E-M Theory to quantify and evaluate what his gut told him.

To understand the process of invention, one must also understand where invention comes from. Both Johnson and Parker discuss three theories of the origins of invention, which Parker titles the transcendentalist, the mechanistic, and the cumulative synthesis.90 The first view, in which “the lone inventor makes a great impact on technology with a single creative thought,” and “his flash of genius is largely independent of economic forces. Curiosity and fortuitous events are major elements,”91 is rejected by both authors. The second view is characterized by the idea that “invention proceeds under the stress of necessity. Need dictates the direction of change and inventions emerge … [and] economic forces predominate.”92 Johnson elaborates that in this view, “the individual inventor is therefore merely a tool of history… invention is an inevitable responding to the needs of the time.”93 He also explains that “support for this thesis is sought through lists of ‘duplicate’ or equivalent inventions occurring at roughly the same time.”94 The final approach Parker calls “the most realistic theory of invention.”95 It is more like a combination of the first two approaches: “An act of insight is required and the individual may play an important role in the solution of technical problems. His role is not that of a genius, nor is he pushed aside by the onrush of an inevitable historical process. By a synthesis of previous knowledge and an act of insight he may overcome a discontinuity.”96 Of the role of the individual, Parker notes that it “would appear to be declining. However, his contribution is by no means insignificant. … [But] individuals have considerable difficulty in persuading industry to adopt their inventions.”97 Finally, in this approach, “all inventions depend first on perceiving a problem and second on the amassing of the necessary data.”98

John Boyd and the F-16 seem to fit best into the cumulative synthesis theory of invention. Boyd had brilliance, but economic forces played a role as well. Economic forces do seem to dominate the situation, as in the mechanistic approach, but one would be hard pressed to downplay Boyd’s role as an inventive individual. There was no guarantee in history that the Air Force would innovate in order to sustain itself. Boyd synthesized previous ideas and used his own insight to create an invention. Also, as Parker noted, it was very difficult for him to convince the military (the industry) to adopt his invention. Finally, in support of the cumulative synthesis theory, Boyd fit another of Parker’s descriptions: he recognized problems in the Air Force then set about gathering information and research on how to fix the problems.

Data is amassed through research and development (R&D). Economic theories offer insight into R&D processes as well, mainly through explanations of the processes of innovation. Parker defines innovation as “all the activities in bringing a new product or process to the market.”99 Johnson states that innovation occurs “when an invention, either a new one or one that is old but has not previously been taken up, is utilized by industry and exploited commercially.”100 Innovation occurs in four steps: invention (already discussed), entrepreneurship, investment, and development.101 The second, third, and fourth steps can be summed up as follows:

“The entrepreneurship function involves deciding to go forward with the effort, organizing it and obtaining financial support. Investment is the act of risking funds for the venture. Development is the lengthy sequence of detail-orientated technical activities, including trial and error testing, through which the original concept is modified and perfected until it is ready for commercial utilization.”102

According to these steps, then, Boyd and the F-16 were a process of innovation. The invention was the E-M Theory. Boyd was also the entrepreneur, as well as Riccioni, who promoted the theory. Investment occurred when the Air Force, with the help of Schlesinger’s prodding, provided funding to Boyd and the fighter mafia to develop the technology. Development in this case covers the entire period of prototyping and the selection of the YF-16 over the YF-17 because of its greater ability to fit user needs.

To understand the role of economics, detailed explanation of each of these steps is not necessary, but it is important to note many of the insights that the discussions of such theories reveal about the characteristics of firms that succeed or fail at innovation. Factors that influence success or failure include “user needs, marketing, efficiency of development work, communications and seniority of management.”103 In relation to management, Parker says that failures commonly occur when “a lower company rank of the individuals responsible for the innovation [exists].”104 This explains why Boyd had so much difficulty in getting the Air Force to adapt- he was relatively low in the ranks of the Air Force. Without the support of a high ranking official like Schlesinger his project would have failed.

Parker also notes that “Managements that are aware of the general features of innovation as an industrial process, are likely to evolve attitudes and procedural ‘ground rules’ that should help them avoid failures.”105 Ground rules organizations would wish to establish include the following: “An influential manager should be made personally responsible for particular projects. Project selection should exhibit a strong bias towards user needs. Company organization should ensure excellent interaction between marketing and R and D; and project reappraisal should be a routine and continuous process.”106 Another observation pertaining to management is that “where R and D expenditure is considerable, management commitment is high.”107 Other characteristics of success include the ability to make “sure that technical problems were solved before commercial sales were made,” and a company’s ability to foresee problems and promote user education.108

All of these factors are applicable to the US Air Force’s adoption of the F-16. The Air Force certainly should not be described as “aware of the general features of innovation,” another reason Boyd faced so much opposition. Second, Boyd was personally responsible for his project, it was his own creation, but unfortunately, he was not very “influential” in terms of rank. The Air Force was successful in the fact that it was sensitive to the needs of NATO forces. This is probably one of the biggest reasons for the project’s success. NATO forces were looking for cheaper planes, and the F-16 fit the bill when other US planes did not. This market and possibility for demand increased the plane’s profitability, which in turn increased its likelihood for adoption. NATO forces met with developers to ensure the plane was what they were looking for; they worked out the technical problems before production and before they made the sale. To Boyd’s disappointment, parties did reappraise the plane, changing it from the ideal sleek, light fighter he hoped it would be, but these changes helped its adoption. Finally, Boyd promoted user education by briefing military officials and the aerospace industry on E-M Theory.

Summary and Conclusions

Each of these theories offers a unique perspective on the adoption of the F-16 by the United States Air Force. First, Morison looks at the individual behind the innovation. He emphasizes the fact that innovation really is the compiling of technology, similar to the economic theory of cumulative synthesis. Morison, however, focuses on the unique insight of the individual more than economic and historical context of the invention. Morison then examines process of innovation within the Navy. The case of gunnery reform in the Navy very closely parallels the Air Force’s adoption of the F-16. Morison promotes one reason for why societies have difficulty adapting- conflicts of identity. To solve clashes of identity, he suggests establishing a general objective which everyone in the society has incentive to promote. He fails to address issues that arise when it is the general objective itself that needs reforming. Overall, the Morison article was good for outlining relationships between case studies, but raised questions in more theoretical terms.

Wilson looks at innovation in terms of the characteristics of the organizations in which they occur rather than through the lens of the individual. The characteristics he identifies explain a lot about why the F-16 was adopted. The Air Force adopted the F-16 because they faced a crisis and they were paying attention to user needs. Boyd faced opposition within the Air Force because the Air Force incentive system did not promote innovation and because the Air Force was too centralized. Wilson’s ideas, however, run into problems because of his assumption that everyone within and organization working in their own self interest will promote innovation within the organization.

Economic theories are the most comprehensive of the theories examined in this paper because they address invention and innovation in terms of the both the individual and the institution. Boyd fits into the cumulative synthesis theory of invention- he builds upon the work of others but at the same time uses his own insight to overcome a problem he identified in the Air Force. Boyd and the F-16 fit into all the stages of innovation: invention, entrepreneurship, investment, and development. The factors that influenced the eventual adoption of the F-16 included the awareness of the Air Force of innovation, the structures of rank within the Air Force, the needs of users such as NATO, and finally, Boyd’s ability to promote his E-M Theory through education.

Overall, the Morison and Wilson articles were helpful in understanding the innovation in the military in terms of the F-16. The economic theories, however, offered the most insight. The simplified theories can easily be extrapolated to any form of invention or innovation, not just a particular case study. Invention and innovation depend on the individuals involved, as well as the structures and willingness of organizations to adapt.

Works Cited

1 Major Jeffrey L. Cowan, “Master of Military Studies by Major Jeffrey L. Cowan, U.S. Air Force,” United States Marine Corps Command and Staff College Marine Corps University, http://www.d-n-i.net/fcs/boyd_thesis.htm (accessed December 4, 2008), pNA.

2 Robert Coram, Boyd: The Fighter Who Changed the Art of War (New York: Little, Brown, and Company, 2002), 16.

3 Ibid., 18.

4 Major Jeffrey L. Cowan, “Master of Military Studies …” pNA.

5 Ibid., pNA.

6 Ibid., pNA.

7 Ibid., pNA.

8 Ibid., pNA.

9 Ibid., pNA.

10 Coram, Boyd: The Fighter Who Changed the Art of War, 75-76.

11 Ibid., 79.

12 Ibid., 103.

13 Ibid., 103.

14 Ibid., 113.

15 Ibid., 114.

16 Ibid., 116.

17 Ibid., 132.

18 Coram, Boyd: The Fighter Who Changed the Art of War, 141-143.

19 Ibid., 144.

20 Ibid., 148.

21 Ibid., 148.

22 Ibid., 163.

23 Ibid., 173.

24 Ibid., 185.

25 Ibid., 202.

26 Ibid., 178-179.

27 Ibid., 231.

28 Ingemar Dörfer, Arms Deal: The Selling of the F-16 (New York, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1983), 4.

29 Ibid., 4.

30 Ingemar Dörfer, Arms Deal: The Selling of the F-16, 5.

31 Coram, Boyd: The Fighter Who Changed the Art of War, 237-240.

32 Ingemar Dörfer, Arms Deal: The Selling of the F-16, 4.

33 Ibid., 5.

34 Ibid., 5.

35 Ibid., xvii.

36 Ibid., 11.

37 Ibid., 10-11.

38 Ibid., 10.

39 Ibid., 7.

40 Ingemar Dörfer, Arms Deal: The Selling of the F-16, 8.

41 Ibid., 21.

42 Ibid., 22.

43 Ibid., 13.

44 Ibid., 24.

45 Ibid., 25.

46 Ibid., 26.

47 Elting E. Morison, Men, Machines and Modern Times (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1966, essay originally 1950), 23.

48 Ibid., 23.

49 Ibid., 24.

50 Ibid., 25.

51 Ibid., 29.

52 Ibid., 29.

53 Coram, Boyd: The Fighter Who Changed the Art of War, 163.

54 Ibid., 180.

55 Morison, Men, Machines and Modern Times, 29.

56 Ibid., 29.

57 Ibid., 29.

58 Ibid., 30.

59 Ibid., 31.

60 Ibid., 31.

61 Ibid., 31.

62 Ibid., 33-34.

63 Ibid., 34.

64 Ibid., 34.

65 Ibid., 41.

66 Morison, Men, Machines and Modern Times, 33.

67 Ibid., 36.

68 Ibid., 38.

69 Ibid., 42.

70 Ibid., 43.

71 Ingemar Dörfer, Arms Deal: The Selling of the F-16, xvi.

72 James Q. Wilson , “Innovation in Organization: Notes Toward a Theory,” (https://www.blackboard.odu.edu/courses/1/200810_FALL_POLS350T_13380/content/_1291832_1/Wilson,%20Innovation%20in%20organization.pdf?bsession=28516312&bsession_str=session_id=28516312,user_id_pk1=61210282,user_id_sos_id_pk2=1,one_time_token=), accessed October 4, 2008, 200.

73 Ibid., 205.

74 Ibid., 205.

75 Ibid., 204-205.

76 Ibid., 208-214.

77 Ibid., 209.

78 Wilson, “Innovation in Organization,” 214.

79 Ibid., 214.

80 Ibid., 212.

81 Ibid., 212.

82 Ibid., 196.

83 J. E. S. Parker, The Economics of Innovation (New York: Longman Inc., 1978), 9.

84 Ibid., 46.

85 P. S. Johnson, The Economics of Invention and Innovation (London: Martin Robertson &Co. Ltd., 1975), 18.

86 Ibid., 19.

87 Ibid., 29-30.

88 Ibid., 30.

89 Morison, Gunfire at Sea 23-24.

90 Parker, The Economics of Innovation, 46.

91 Ibid., 27.

92 Ibid., 27.

93 Johnson, The Economics of Invention and Innovation, 33.

94 Ibid., 33.

95 Parker, The Economics of Innovation, 46.

96 Ibid., 46.

97 Ibid., 47.

98 Johnson, The Economics of Invention and Innovation, 33.

99 Parker, The Economics of Innovation, 50.

100 Johnson, The Economics of Invention and Innovation, 19.

101 Parker, The Economics of Innovation, 50.

102 Ibid., 50.

103 Ibid., 119.

104 Ibid., 104-105.

105 Ibid., 102.

106 Ibid., 111.

107 Ibid., 10.

108 Parker, The Economics of Innovation, 105.

Disclaimer: The conclusions and opinions in the paper reflect those of the student author, and not those of the school or professor.

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