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akifsessays · 2 years

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How was the Ottoman Empire housed and governed by so many nations? Did he act equally or more segregated?

Muhammed Akif ÇINAR

This article explores the main ideas of the Millet system. "Millet", which derived from the Arabic word "Mille", is translated as a nation in English. This term has been used to describe any nations as well as non-Muslims. Unlike the word millet used today in the Ottoman Empire, it has a linguistic meaning, not religious. In addition, the millet system was in favor of harmonization of family and society.

Key Words: Ottoman, Millet, Turk, Nation, Mille, Cemaat, Dhimmi ,Tanzimat

The Ottoman Empire (1299-1923) managed to become one of the leading empires in the world over the centuries. Ottoman sultans continued the conquests and enriched the lands of the empire (especially Yavuz Sultan Selim (Osmanlı Tarihi Interaktif (Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları XXXI. Dizi-Sa.2))). As a result of the expanding lands, many ethnic and religious communities lived under Ottoman rule. The fact that the Ottoman Empire managed to provide these communities with a peaceful coexistence has attracted the attention of many scholars. In fact, the millet system was an extraordinary and influential policy in the historical context of the Ottoman Empire. Thanks to this government system, non-Muslim and non-Turkish elements of Ottoman society were able to live a peaceful and egalitarian social system. In this respect, it would not be wrong to claim that the millet system was the key to the social and political order of the Ottoman Empire. In the heterogeneous Ottoman Empire , a millet was an autonomous self-governing religious community, each organized under its own laws and headed by a religious leader, who was responsible to the central government for the fulfillment of millet responsibilities and duties, particularly those of paying taxes and maintaining internal security.[1]

The Term

The term millet, which originates from the Arabic milla, had three basic meanings in Ottoman Turkish: religion, religious community and nation. [2] The first sense derives from Quranic usage and is attested in Ottoman administrative documents into the 19th century. [3] Benjamin Braude has argued that before the period of 19th-century Tanzimat reforms, the word millet in the sense of religious community denoted the Muslim religious community or the Christians outside of the Ottoman Empire.[4] (The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876) This view is supported by Donald Quataert. [5] In contrast, Michael Ursinus writes that the word was used to refer to non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman Empire even before that time. The term was used inconsistently prior to the 19th century.

The systematic use of millet as designation for non-Muslim Ottoman communities dates from the reign of Sultan Mahmud II. (r.1808—1839, was the 30’th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.) in the early 19th century, when official documentation came to reiterate that non-Muslim subjects were organized into three officially sanctioned millets: Greek Orthodox, Armenian and Jewish. [6] The bureaucrats of this era asserted that the millet system was a tradition dating back to the reign of Sultan Mehmed I (r. 1413–1421). Many historians have accepted this claim and assumed that a millet system of this form existed since early Ottoman times. The Ottoman state used religion rather than ethnicity to define each nation, and people who study the Ottoman Empire do not define the Muslims as being in a millet.[7] The Armenian, Greek, and Jewish residents did not use the word "millet" and instead described themselves as nations (French: nation, Armenian: azg, Greek: ethnos, and Latino: nasyon). The lack of use of the word "millet" among the Christian and Jewish minorities reflected in versions of the Ottoman Constitution in their respective languages: The French version of the Ottoman Constitution used the word "communauté" in the place of "millet".

‘’The millet system is closely linked to Islamic rules on the treatment of non−Muslim minorities living under Islamic dominion (dhimmi).’’[8] ‘’The Ottoman term specifically refers to the separate legal courts pertaining to personal law under which minorities were allowed to rule themselves (in cases not involving any Muslim) with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government.’’[9]

According to the concept of the nation (until the modern age, except in the Armenian case) people were attached to millets by their religious affiliation rather than their ethnic origin, millets had a great power - they set and collect their own laws. and distributing its own taxes. All that was required was loyalty to the Empire. When a member of the nation committed a crime against another member of the other, the law of the injured party was valid, but when the ruling Islamic majority was the most important issue, any dispute involving a Muslim would fall under sharia law.

In the 19th century, the perception of the nation changed in the Ottoman Empire with the effect of the nationalism movement..

The Features Of Millet System

Ottoman social order is an order based on differences This mosaic model of society is shaped according to differences in belief and protected by law. This model has a pluralistic quality in socio-cultural and religious plan. This pluralism in the Ottoman Empire was understood and applied in the way of preserving and maintaining differences. According to this, in the Ottoman Empire, various religious and cultural segments of the society would come together, but they would not cease to be themselves, each group would preserve their own religion, language, ideas and way of life (Oğuzoğlu, 1999). This multiculturalism in the Ottoman Empire well forms the basis. Accordingly, the Ottoman nation organization, after the region's participation in Darü'l-Islam, an organization that was born when the people of the book (ahl-i zimmet (Zimmet , which means "treaty, pledge, commitment, trust, assurance" in the dictionary, is used in the Quran as "obligation arising from treaty and treaty)) came under the administration of the Islamic state with a covenant granting law and protection is a legal entity[10] . During the foundation years of Islam, one of the basic principles of the Islamic state .It was the Ottomans who developed this system, which emerged as one and based on the understanding of "ummah" and implemented it in the best way.

The Ottomans developed this system, which they inherited from the previous Turkish-Islamic states, and established an administration dependent on this system in the countries they dominated. (Ortaylı, 2002). Since the protection of differences was essential in the Ottoman millet system, the cultural and national integration policy aimed at making differences similar was never implemented. (GÜRKAYNAK, 2003) The basic policy on this issue; It is a policy based on recognizing the state authority and fulfilling its requirements as required by the agreement on Zimmet (ERYILMAZ, 1999).

The Ottoman State did not try to eliminate the differences of communities as modern nation states and colonial administrations did, but aimed to keep them alive together. Accordingly, in the millet system, each community is not only a religious community, but also an administrative commune. Apart from these, religious or sect-based works such as education, communication, social security, justice, influence, religious affairs and foundation services are left to non-Muslim communities to be carried out by the national organizations.

The Elements Forming The Millet System

During the period of Mehmet II (Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han), when the Ottoman Empire reached the status of an empire, the nation system organized by the state was initiated with the organization of churches under the control of the state. This system 'in the congregations XV. XIX century. It was called "Nation" until the end of the century. Although these non-Muslim communities are not always named as their nation in the geography, they have continued their lives with the nation system organized by the state. (Öztürk, 2014)

[11]

Although the Ottoman administration of non-Muslim subjects was not uniform until the 19th century and varied according to region and group, it is possible to identify some common patterns for earlier epochs. Christian and Jewish communities were granted a large degree of autonomy. Tax collection, education, legal and religious affairs of these communities were administered by their own leaders. This enabled the Ottomans to rule over diverse peoples with "a minimum of resistance". The Jewish community, in particular, was able to prosper under the Ottoman rule and its ranks were swelled with the arrival of Jews who were expelled from Spain. At the same time, non-Muslims were subject to several forms of discrimination and excluded from the Ottoman ruling elite .

The Orthodox Christians were included in the Rum Millet (millet-i Rûm), or the "Roman nation" conquered by Islam but enjoying a certain autonomy. It was named after Roman ("Byzantine") subjects of the Ottoman Empire, but Orthodox Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Arabs, Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and Serbs were all considered part of the same millet despite their differences in ethnicity and language and despite the fact that the religious hierarchy was Greek dominated. Nevertheless, ethnonyms never disappeared and some form of ethnic identity was preserved as evident from a Sultan's Firman from 1680, that lists the ethnic groups on the Balkan lands as follows: Greeks (Rum), Albanians (Arnaut), Serbs (Sirf), "Vlachs" (Eflak, referring to the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians) and Bulgarians (Bulgar).[12]

Until the 19th century, there was a single Armenian millet which served all ethnic Armenians irrespective of whether they belonged to the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Armenian Catholic Church or the Armenian Protestant Church (which was formed in the 19th century).[13]Only later did a separate Catholic millets emerge. Non-Armenians from churches which were theologically linked to the Armenian Church (by virtue of being non-Chalcedonians) were under the authority of the Armenian Patriarchate, although they maintained a separate hierarchy with their own Patriarchs. These groups included the Syriac Orthodox and the Copts.

Assyrians are referred to as 'Asuri' in the Turkish , Assyrians split by Christian sect were thus treated as separate ethnic groups for the Ottoman government. The Syriac Catholic community was recognized as its own millet . The Chaldean community was recognized as its own millet.[14]

The Syriac Orthodox community in the Ottoman Empire was for long not recognized as its own millet, but part of the Armenian millet (under the Armenian Patriarch). Then, during the Tanzimat reforms the Syriac Orthodox were granted independent status with the recognition of their own millet.[15]

Under the millet system the Jews were organized as a community on the basis of religion, alongside the other millets (e.g. Orthodox millet, Armenian millet, etc.). In the framework of the millet they had a considerable amount of administrative autonomy and were represented by the Hakham Bashi who held broad powers to legislate, judge, and enforce the laws among the Jews in the Ottoman Empire and often sat on the Sultan's divan. The Ottoman Jews enjoyed similar privileges to those of the Orthodox. The Jews, like the other millet communities of the Ottoman Empire, were still considered a people of the book and protected by the Sharia Law of Islam. However, while the Jews were not viewed in the eyes of the law to be on an equal playing field with Muslims, they were still treated relatively well at points during the Ottoman Empire.[16]

After the fall of Constantinople, the only Latin Catholic group to be incorporated into the Sultan's domain were the Genoese who lived in the Byzantine capital. Over the next decades, Turkish armies pushed into the Balkans, overrunning the Catholic populations of Albania, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Hungary. In the Orient, the 16th century saw the Maronites of Lebanon, the Latins of Palestine, and most of the Greek islands, which once held Latin Catholic communities, come under Turkish rule. Papal response to the loss of these communities was initially a call to the crusade, but the response from the European Catholic monarchs was weak: French interest, moreover, lay in an alliance with the Turks against the Habsburgs.[17]

The Ottoman administration was based on communal affiliation, not affiliation in accordance with the content of cellular education. In this sense, the state was accepted as the addressee, not the individual, but the groups / communities that gave the individual a social status. (Ceylan, January 2002). There were four nations (Millet-i Erbia) generally accepted in the Ottoman society. These are the Muslim nation, the Greek nation, the Armenian nation and the Jewish nation. It is named as the Muslim nation (Millet-i Hâkime) and the Armenian nation as (Millet-i Sadıka). This name given to the Armenians must be due to their loyalty. The elements that make the Muslim nation exist are Turks, Arabs, Albanians, Bosnians, Berbers, Circassians, Georgians, Abaza and Chechens, according to which the Ottoman Nation organization is based not on ethnic (tribal) and linguistic affiliation, but on belonging to religion and sect. Almost all of the groups that formed the millet system in the Ottoman Empire were dependent on the outside to a certain extent, but they were under the control of their own nation administration. All kinds of responsibilities of individuals are against their own communities and nations. According to this, a non-Muslim person in the Ottoman Empire was responsible firstly to the nation administration and then to the state in matters such as administrative and financial matters.

The main purpose of dividing the society into such groups is in the rule of an empire people are not as individuals, but it is being addressed by the state as a community. While trying to protect its own interests, the empire also used this national system in its relations with its subjects. In other words, the state has ensured its sovereignty by separating these groups with clear lines. Managing the society has become easier and rational with this method, which almost creates an unchanging balance element. Because the heads of the nations, within the framework of the organization of their places of worship, were bound to the approval of the state at the highest point. Therefore, it was deemed more appropriate by the administration to have communities affiliated with it, not individuals. As a matter of fact, the Ottoman administration did not deal with non-Muslims as individuals except for the taxation tax, but as a community-nation. It is strictly forbidden to cross between these communities and nations, which form the basis of social organization. Especially the Muslim nation, whose qualities are more than others, is the most privileged in terms of this transmittance class. Because it is strictly forbidden to leave Islam within the framework of Islamic thought. In this respect, the Ottoman legal and social system strictly forbidden to leave the Muslim nation and enter into another nation.

19th century (Reformation Era)

New millets were created in the 19th century for several Uniate and Protestant Christian communities, then for the separate Eastern Orthodox Bulgarian Church, recognized as a Bulgar Millet by an Ottoman firman in 1870 and excommunicated two years later by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as adherents of phyletism (national or ethnic principle in church organization).In the period before World War I there were seventeen millets within the Empire.

Collopse of Millet System

The gradual decline of the central authority of the Ottoman Empire corresponded tothe increase in the influence of the Western countries on the Ottoman Empire. This influencewhich was mainly resulted from the Capitulations also had a great impact on the millet system and situation of Zımmi’s .The 19th Century reforms were direct responses to these changesand efforts to reestablish the millet system. Thus, the reforms and the collapse of the millet system should be thought in relation with nationalist separatist movements and international pressures. In order to secure the obedience of the millets and eliminate the Western influence onthem, Ottoman sultans reformed the millet system. In the previous system, Muslims and non-Muslims were treated equally and fairly in the legal affairs. However, some of the elements ofmillet system which helped preserving the diversity and identities functioned in a way which differentiates Muslims and non-Muslims. Such differentiation was not a problem in thegolden ages of Ottoman Empire. However, they constituted serious problems as the Ottomans weakened and became open to nationalist critiques. In other words, the traditional egalitariansystem was not enough to secure the order. Ottoman Empire should have provided totalequality to non-Muslims and Muslims. As confirmed by a number of historians, the major aimof this reform movement was to eliminate the status differences of non-Muslim millets andintegrate them into the Ottoman citizen category.[18]

This was only possible through creation of a new legal system which would include both Muslims and non-Muslims; and eliminate all restrictions relying on the status of non-Muslims. The reform wave was aiming to achieve this objective through integration of secular Western legal rules into Ottoman system. (Ceylan, January 2002) (ERYILMAZ, 1999) Consequently, non-Muslims were not allowed to be a part of Ottoman politics. With the Tanzimat reforms and the following fermans theequality between the two communities secured to a greater extent. The poll tax waseliminated, non-Muslims started to take part in the foreign affairs and parliament (Ortaylı, 2002) .In this era the previously mentioned de facto application of citizenship principles became a reality. Thus, in the 19 th century, both communities were called as Ottoman citizens rather than two separate communities. (ERYILMAZ, 1999) The 1856 Islahat brought further opportunities for the Millet. According to Ceylan the most important one of these new regulations was that eachmillet was asked for carrying out their own constitutional reforms. (Ceylan, January 2002) However, none of these reforms could help securing the maintenance of neither themillet system nor the Ottoman Empire.

The reforms altered the initial system and Ottomangovernmental and economic structure failed to meet the requirements of the new system. Ottoman central authority weakened to a great extent and devolution of power to the millets did not stop this weakening. In this way, a system which was a significant example of early multi-culturalism practices collapsed along with the Ottoman Empire.

It can be argued that therelative lack of success of the reforms and the resistance from both Muslim and non-Muslimmillets to the idea of change were among the major reasons behind both the weakening of the Empire and collapse of millet system.

Conclusion

It has emerged as a social/political structuring that follows the religious/sect seperation in accordance with the traditions. In this system ,non-Muslims are connected to the state through a hierarchical structuring process with tje criteria of religion/sect.

As the above mentioned discussions pointed out millet system was far from being a myth. It did not contain a total equality despite the fact that it was a significantly egalitarian system. As the era changed, and modernity values spread to the Ottoman Empire the system required to be reformed. However, neither the millet system nor the Empire could survive in the modern era.

[19]

References

*Is a 3rd year student in the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, the department of International Relations in Cyprus International University .

[1] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Millet". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Sep. 2010, https://www.britannica.com/topic/millet-religious-group. Accessed 28 April 2021.

[2] Ursinus, M.O.H (1993). "Millet". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.

[3] Ursinus, M.O.H (1993). "Millet". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.

[4] Ursinus, M.O.H (1993). "Millet". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.

[5] Quataert, Donald (2005). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition). pp. 175–176.

[6] "Millet", Bruce Masters, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Ed. Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters, (InfoBase Publishing, 2009), p. 383

[7] Öztürk, Fatih. "The Ottoman Millet System". pp. 71–86. - Cited: p. 72

[8] Öztürk, Fatih. "The Ottoman Millet System". pp. 71–86. - Cited: p. 72

[9] Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Millet". Encyclopedia Britannica, 7 Sep. 2010, https://www.britannica.com/topic/millet-religious-group. Accessed 28 April 2021.

[10] ORTAYLI, İ. 2002: “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Millet Sistemi”, Türkler, C. X, s. 216-220, Ankara

[11] Map of prevailing religions in the territories of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century. Note that millets were not actually territorial. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)#/media/File:OttomanMillets.jpg

[12] Minorities (Ottoman Empire/Middle East) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/minorities_ottoman_empiremiddle_east

[13] Ortaylı, İlber (2006), Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı [The Last Empire: Ottoman Empire], İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), pp. 87–89

[14] "Minorities (Ottoman Empire/Middle East) | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. Retrieved 7 November 2019. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/minorities_ottoman_empiremiddle_east

[15] . Taylor, William (2014). Narratives of Identity: The Syrian Orthodox Church and the Church of England 1895–1914. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 84–87.

[16] Ortaylı, İlber (2006), Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı [The Last Empire: Ottoman Empire] (in Turkish), İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), pp. 87–89

[17] Religion and the Politics of Ident, Ger Duijzings, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2000 p. 28.

[18] Bozkurt, Gülnihal.Alman- İngiliz Belgelerinin ve Siyasi Gelişmelerin Işığı Altında Gayrimüslim OsmanlıVatandaşlarının Hukuki Durumu (1839 -1914)

· Additional References

· [19] Millet System in Ottoman Empire : An Extraordinary Policy with Extraordinary – Yunus BOR (https://www.academia.edu/7521006/Millet_system_in_Ottoman_Empire)

· The System of Nation in Ottoman Empire; Uğur KURTARAN ; Dumlupınar Üniversitesi ; Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences Number 8, Autumn 2011, 57-71

· "Millet System in the Ottoman Empire". Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press.

· Ahmet İçduygu & B. Ali Soner (2006) Turkish minority rights regime: Between difference and equality, Middle Eastern Studies, 42:3, 447 468 (https://www.academia.edu/34897204/Middle_Eastern_Studies_Turkish_minority_rights_regime_Between_difference_and_equality)

· Abdullah Özkan ; Bir Zamanlar Osmanlı ‘Padişahlar Atlası’;Boyut Yayıncılık A.Ş(2012).; pp.6-21 ISBN 978-975-23-1010-0

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fetal-lawyer · 2 years

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The Gym Controversy - The Grizzly – Student Newspaper of Ursinus College

On October 24, Ursinus' head strength and conditioning coach, Michael Moronese, sent out an email in which he announced an Open Gym Block for “all ... from Google Alert - gym https://ift.tt/3D2LMps

#IFTTT #Google Alert - gym

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ursafilms · 5 years

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Don’t Annoy the Kangaroo - Prologue

Assume that working in the film production industry can be considered a real career. Upon reflection, some of the past 34 years feels more surreal than real. But, in the interest of writing about those 34 years, let me state that everything you will read in the chapters to follow actually occurred . . . more or less. Mostly more.

Let me pay homage to the five years prior to my first job as a production assistant in 1984. Why? Because they’re very important to the formation of the armor-plated skin I grew; the fabulous can-do attitude I cultivated; and the brilliant wit which will be on full display.

I graduated from Ursinus College in 1979 with a B.A. in English Literature. A B.A. in English Literature in 1979 will garner you as many job offers as a B.A. in English Literature did in 1969, or 1989, or 1959, or 1999, etc.

Zero. Unless, of course, you want to continue onto graduate school, which entails sending more money to an academic institution to pay the various squash-playing, but non-teaching full-time tenured professors to play squash and not teach. Oh, and chase coeds, if that term makes sense to anyone reading this.

****

Some time in 1979 after my graduation money ran out, I moved to New York City from the Philadelphia area to pursue a career as a chorus boy in Broadway musicals. Because that made as much sense as anything.

The next five years were frittered away dancing in music videos, begging for summer stock jobs, toiling for a very unemployed dance company, and giving away my time and energy working in a handful of shows that opened so far off Broadway they might as well have been staged in my hometown of Stratford, New Jersey. At least this would have accommodated my parents’ desire to see me perform, but may have further depressed them over the money they had sent to the aforementioned squash-playing, non-teaching professors.

Before anyone gets carried away with what appears to be a more than modest amount of success, let me tell you a reworked musician joke:

Three men arrive at the proverbial Pearly Gates. St. Peter is on duty and calls them forward one at a time. The first gentleman stands before the Guardian of Heaven.

St. Peter: “Tell me sir. What was the most money you ever made while on Earth?

Man #1: “I made five million dollars in my best year.”

St. Peter: “Goodness. God’s benevolence and riches upon you. What service did you perform to earn so much money?”

Man #1: “I was an attorney.”

St. Peter pulls a lever and the attorney drops down to Hell. He motions for the next man, who reluctantly steps forward.

St. Peter: “Tell me sir. What was the most money you ever made while on Earth?

Man #2 (Stammering): “I made $750,000 dollars in my best year.”

St. Peter: “Goodness. God’s benevolence and riches upon you. What service did you perform to earn so much money?”

Man #2: “I was a heart surgeon.”

St. Peter: “Thank you for saving and extending so many lives. You may pass through the Gates of Heaven.”

Man #2 wipes his brow and passes into Heaven. St. Peter signals for the final candidate to come forward.

St. Peter: “Tell me sir. What was the most money you ever made while on Earth?

Man #1: “I made $17,868.43 in my best year.”

St. Peter: “Is that right? Was that for a chorus role, or did you dance in a corps de ballet?”

As my lovely wife of more-years-than-I-want-to-count would say, “My husband was a quadruple threat, actor/singer/dancer/waiter.”

****

None of the above has yet led to any understanding of how I ended up working in an industry, film production that eludes logical description. How did I find myself, in August of 1984, standing on the boardwalk in Atlantic City with a clipboard in my left hand, and directing heat-stroked tourists out of the way of a cameraman running after a Michael Jackson look-alike, with my right hand?

Women.

The first, a choreographer named Suzy Miller, who hired me to dance in five or six music videos between 1982 and 1983, snuck me into KYW-TV in Philadelphia to intern as her production assistant for Evening Magazine in the Fall of 1984.

The second, and most important woman in my life, my wife, Lee, proclaimed sometime prior to my internship that if we were going to have anything more than a relationship based on late night sex, I would have to forego the dream existence of actor/singer/dancer/waiter.

Yes, every guy reading this is now flipping a coin.

And I did flip a coin as well, but in the interest of full disclosure, it didn’t matter if it came up, ahem, head or tail, I was moving to the other side of the camera in a professional sense. I transitioned from the glamour filled existence of public humiliation at the hands of sadistic choreographers, fascist audition running dance captains, and middle-aged theater directors trying to score with anyone in the chorus, male or female, to the glamour filled existence of cleaning up the trash left by everyone else on the sound stage, and to three square meals a day consisting of lox and bagels in the morning with cold coffee; maybe half a serving of wilted salad and unpurposefully cold pasta and coffee two hours after everyone else had eaten lunch; and a slice of pizza with a side of M&Ms for dinner accompanied by the usual dressing down by the line producer of how the PAs turned out to be a lazy bunch of gits.

To tie this up with a neat little bow, which, ironically, one particularly OCD- suffering line producer insisted be put on all the take out containers cadged by the crew and agency at the end of her jobs, I finally left the world of dance in the Summer of 1984. I exited a world populated by insecure narcissists unsure of not only their next meal, but also their talent. I exchanged it for a world of insecure narcissists whose next meal consisted of haute cuisine on shoot days, but found themselves incapable of manufacturing more than a PB&J on their down days. They were also unsure of their talent.

The forthcoming blog series (and book) is an homage to every creative person who ever woke up in a cocaine or alcohol induced hangover, or both, at 3am and found themselves watching reruns of The Andy Griffith Show. This latest batch of blurry images from Mayberry generated, without fail, the right brained folks’ next brilliant idea which they were only too happy to task me with on the following day, after I’d scoured the town for mild Tabasco, Meyer lemon juice, Kosher Sea Salt, and Light Golden Rum for their imagined hangover cure.

Whiny God King Director: “George.” They would slur, while imbibing their miracle concoction. “Find out who is representing Ronnie Howard.”

Me: “Sure. Anything I should tell them?”

After another slug.

Whiny God King Director: “Just find out who the rep is, you lazy git. Did I ask you to do anything else?”

Me: “Not yet?”

Whiny God King Director: “What was that?”

Me: “You bet!”

****

Therefore I raise a metaphorical glass of Chateau D'yquem in honor of all creative types. The same ones who purloined expensive libations such as Chateau D'yquem by the use of phony petty cash receipts. The most overpaid people in production were always the ones too cheap to buy anything out of their own money.

Here’s to every 26 year old copy writer whose idea of a clever sentence started with the word, “Yo.” To every art director who wanted to scout churches for a 1-800 Flowers ad, but didn’t want to see anything “too religious.” To every DP that would order every lens known to man, and then use one zoom for six days. To every writer of every script I ever produced, I have but one question, “Did you find any of the 67 HARD copies I gave you?” To all the production designers on the planet who have actually came in under budget, thanks Bob! To all the wardrobe and make-up people who managed not to have sex with the director, thanks Bob!

And to every Whiny God King Director who enriched my life with requests such as “Before you set up again for the car crash and explosions, could you find out why my girlfriend’s gluten free tapioca pudding is so runny?” And “On our way to set, the driver passed by a New Orleans style funeral procession, could you find out what they might be doing for the next couple of hours?”

Me: “I could hazard a guess, if that would help?”

Whiny God King Director: “What? Where’s craft service setting up breakfast? I love their blintzes.”

NEXT WEEK: THE FIRST OF MANY LAUGH RIOTS. My internship at KYW complete, I returned to NYC and the first of many glamorous production jobs.

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judefan828-blog · 4 years

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brandedcities · 5 years

Text

6-year-old with cystic fibrosis gets drafted to Ursinus men's soccer team

Ursinus College men's soccer team signed 6-year-old Michael Mathis as the newest member of its team.

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spreadcasts · 7 years

Audio

Episode 30 of the Original Transplants Podcast features Satoyama Homestead stewards Sarah and Will discussing late autumn happenings on the homestead. Will gives tips for winter preparation in the bee yard, including combining colonies for overwintering population, treating, feeding, and hive wrapping. Sarah recounts her experience harvesting their three original laying hens and reflects on the timing of Mayapple's broody and chick rearing cycle, pullets coming into lay, and the slaughter of the older chickens. Sarah and Will explain how they are preserving a surplus of green tomatoes for winter sustenance, recall a visit from Ursinus College's Environmental Studies senior capstone class, and join the fight against the invasive and damaging spotted lanternfly. Learn more at spreadcasts.tumblr.com and www.satoyamahs.org.

Resources

Bee yard winter preparation

Bush, Michael. (2009). Wintering [bee hives]. Bush Farms.

Newspaper method of combining honeybee colonies. eXtension Ask an Expert.

Requeening by newspaper combining (Ask Phil). Bee Culture.

Reuter, Gary S. & Spivak, Marla. (2010, Jan. 15). Wrapping a colony for a northern winter. eXtension.

Harvesting backyard chickens

Hartman-Caverly, Sarah. (2017). Intimate slaughter: A dark comedy of humane killing and human fallibility. Spreadcasts. Satoyama Homestead.

Luttman & Luttman. (1976). Chickens in your backyard: A beginner’s guide.

Megyesi, Jennifer. (2015). The joy of keeping chickens: The ultimate guide to keeping poultry for fun or profit.

Mettler, John. (1985). Basic butchering of livestock & game.

Oxfam. (2015). Lives on the line: The human cost of cheap chicken. (Immersive website.)

Preserving green tomatoes

Ball complete book of home preserving, 2015.

Bombogenesis

NOAA. (2017, Oct. 10). What is bombogenesis?

Spotted lanternfly

Gruber, Phillip. (2017, Oct. 21). Spotted lanternfly ramps up onslaught. Lancaster Farming.

PennState Extension. What to do if you find spotted lanternfly.

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akifsessays · 2 years

Text

Osmanlı bu kadar milleti içinde barındırıp nasıl yönetiyordu ? Eşit mi davrandı yoksa daha çok ayırdı mı ? - Muhammed Akif ÇINAR

Bu makale Millet sisteminin ana fikirlerini incelemektedir. Arapça "Mille" kelimesinden türetilen "millet" ne anlama ve hangi kesimlere hitaben kullanıldı gibi sorulara cevap vermesi amaçladım. Bu terim, herhangi bir milleti ve Müslüman olmayanları tanımlamak için kullanılmıştır. Bugün Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda kullanılan millet kelimesinin aksine dinsel değil dilsel bir anlamı vardır. Ayrıca millet sistemi aile ve toplumun uyumlaştırılmasından yanaydı.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı, Millet, Türk, Millet, Mille, Cemaat, Zımmi, Tanzimat

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu (1299-1923), yüzyıllar boyunca dünyanın önde gelen imparatorluklarından biri olmayı başardı. Osmanlı padişahları fetihleri sürdürmüş ve imparatorluğun topraklarını (özellikle Yavuz Sultan Selim (Osmanlı Tarihi Interaktif (Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları XXXI. Dizi-Sa.2))) zenginleştirmiştir. Genişleyen toprakların bir sonucu olarak birçok etnik ve dini topluluk Osmanlı idaresi altında yaşadı. Osmanlı Devleti'nin bu topluluklara barış içinde bir arada yaşamayı sağlamayı başarması birçok bilim insanının dikkatini çekmiştir. Aslında millet sistemi, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun tarihsel bağlamında olağanüstü ve etkili bir politikaydı. Bu hükümet sistemi sayesinde Osmanlı toplumunun gayrimüslim ve Türk olmayan unsurları barışçıl ve eşitlikçi bir sosyal sistem yaşayabilmiştir. Bu açıdan millet sisteminin Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun sosyal ve siyasi düzeninin anahtarı olduğunu iddia etmek yanlış olmayacaktır. Heterojen Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda millet, her biri kendi kanunlarına göre teşkilatlanmış ve başı dini bir lider tarafından yönetilen, millet sorumluluklarını ve görevlerini yerine getirmekten, özellikle de para ödemekten sorumlu olan, merkezi hükümete karşı sorumlu olan, özerk, kendi kendini yöneten bir dini topluluktu. vergiler ve iç güvenliğin sağlanması.[1]

Terim

Kökeni Arapça milla olan millet kelimesinin Osmanlı Türkçesinde üç temel anlamı vardı: din, cemaat ve millet. [2]İlk anlam Kuran kullanımından gelir ve 19. yüzyıla kadar Osmanlı idari belgelerinde tasdik edilir. [3]Benjamin Braude, 19. yüzyıl Tanzimat reformları döneminden önce, dini cemaat anlamında millet kelimesinin Müslüman dini cemaati veya Osmanlı İmparatorluğu dışındaki Hıristiyanları ifade ettiğini savundu. [4](Tanzimat, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda 1839'da başlayan ve 1876'da Birinci Meşrutiyet ile sona eren bir reform dönemiydi) Bu görüş Donald Quataert tarafından desteklenmektedir. [5]Buna karşılık, Michael Ursinus, kelimenin o zamandan önce bile Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun gayrimüslim tebaasına atıfta bulunmak için kullanıldığını yazıyor. Terim, 19. yüzyıldan önce tutarsız bir şekilde kullanıldı.

Darı'nın gayrimüslim Osmanlı toplulukları için sistematik olarak kullanılması, Sultan II. Mahmud'un saltanatından kalmadır. (r.1808-1839, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun 30'uncu Padişahıydı.) 19. yüzyılın başlarında, gayrimüslim tebaanın resmi olarak onaylanmış üç millet halinde organize edildiğini yineleyen resmi belgeler geldiğinde: Rum Ortodoks, Ermeni ve Yahudi . [6]Dönemin bürokratları, millet sisteminin Sultan I. Mehmed (1413–1421) dönemine kadar uzanan bir gelenek olduğunu ileri sürmüşlerdir. Birçok tarihçi bu iddiayı kabul etmiş ve bu şekilde bir millet sisteminin erken Osmanlı döneminden beri var olduğunu varsaymıştır. Osmanlı devleti her milleti tanımlamak için etnisiteden ziyade dini kullandı ve Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nu inceleyen insanlar Müslümanları bir millet olarak tanımlamaz. [7]Ermeni, Rum ve Yahudi sakinleri "darı" kelimesini kullanmadılar ve bunun yerine kendilerini millet olarak tanımladılar (Fransızca: ulus, Ermenice: azg, Yunanca: ethnos ve Latino: nasyon). Hıristiyan ve Musevi azınlıklar arasında "darı" kelimesinin kullanılmaması, Osmanlı Anayasası'nın kendi dillerindeki versiyonlarına da yansımıştır: Osmanlı Anayasası'nın Fransızca versiyonu, "darı" yerine "communauté" kelimesini kullanmıştır.

'' Millet sistemi, İslam hakimiyeti (zimmi) altında yaşayan gayrimüslim azınlıkların muamelesine ilişkin İslami kurallarla yakından bağlantılıdır.'' [8]''Osmanlı terimi özellikle azınlıklara izin verilen kişisel hukukla ilgili ayrı hukuk mahkemelerini ifade eder. Osmanlı hükümetinin oldukça az müdahalesiyle (herhangi bir Müslümanın dahil olmadığı durumlarda) kendilerini yönetmeleri.''[9]

Millet kavramına göre (modern çağa kadar, Ermeni durumu hariç) insanlar milletlere etnik kökenlerinden ziyade dini aidiyetleriyle bağlıydılar, milletlerin büyük bir gücü vardı - kendi kanunlarını koyar ve toplarlar. ve kendi vergilerini dağıtıyor. Tek gereken İmparatorluğa sadakatti. Milletin bir üyesi diğerinin bir üyesine karşı suç işlediğinde, zarar gören tarafın hukuku geçerliydi, ancak iktidardaki İslami çoğunluk en önemli konu olduğunda, bir Müslümanla ilgili herhangi bir anlaşmazlık şeriat hukukuna girerdi.

19. yüzyılda Osmanlı Devleti'nde milliyetçilik akımının da etkisiyle millet algısı değişmiştir ..

Darı Sisteminin Özellikleri

Osmanlı toplum düzeni farklılıklara dayalı bir düzendir Bu mozaik toplum modeli, inanç farklılıklarına göre şekillenir ve yasalarla korunur. Bu model, sosyo-kültürel ve dini planda çoğulcu bir niteliğe sahiptir. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndaki bu çoğulculuk, farklılıkların korunması ve yaşatılması şeklinde anlaşılmış ve uygulanmıştır. Buna göre Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda toplumun çeşitli dini ve kültürel kesimleri bir araya gelecek, ancak kendileri olmaktan vazgeçmeyecek, her grup kendi dinini, dilini, düşüncesini ve yaşam biçimini koruyacaktı (Oğuzoğlu, 1999). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndaki bu çok kültürlülük iyi bir temel oluşturuyor. Buna göre Osmanlı millet teşkilatı, bölgenin Darü'l-İslam'a katılmasından sonra, kitap ehlinin (ehl-i zimmet ( Zimmet, "antlaşma, taahhüt, taahhüt, güven, güvence" anlamına gelen ) zamanlarında doğan bir teşkilattır. sözlükte, Kur'an'da "antlaşma ve antlaşmadan doğan yükümlülük) olarak kullanılmaktadır) İslam devletinin yönetimine hukuk ve koruma sağlayan bir ahit ile girmiş ve tüzel kişiliktir.İslam'ın [10]kuruluş yıllarında İslam'ın temel İslam devletinin esasları. Tek olarak ortaya çıkan ve "ümmet" anlayışına dayanan bu sistemi geliştiren ve en iyi şekilde uygulayan Osmanlılar olmuştur.

Osmanlılar, önceki Türk-İslam devletlerinden miras aldıkları bu sistemi geliştirmişler ve hakim oldukları ülkelerde bu sisteme bağlı bir yönetim kurmuşlardır. (Ortaylı, 2002). Osmanlı millet sisteminde farklılıkların korunması esas olduğundan, farklılıkları benzer kılmayı amaçlayan kültürel ve milli bütünleşme politikası hiçbir zaman uygulanmadı. (GÜRKAYNAK, 2003)Bu konudaki temel politika; Devlet otoritesini tanımak ve Zimmet anlaşması gereği gereğini yerine getirmek esasına dayanan bir politikadır (ERYILMAZ, 1999).

Osmanlı Devleti, modern ulus devletler ve sömürge yönetimleri gibi toplulukların farklılıklarını ortadan kaldırmaya çalışmamış, onları bir arada yaşatmayı amaçlamıştır. Buna göre millet sisteminde her topluluk sadece dini bir cemaat değil, aynı zamanda bir idari komündür. Bunların dışında eğitim, haberleşme, sosyal güvenlik, adalet, nüfuz, din işleri ve vakıf hizmetleri gibi din veya mezhep temelli işler milli teşkilatlar tarafından yürütülmek üzere gayrimüslim cemaatlere bırakılmıştır.

Darı Sistemini Oluşturan Unsurlar

II. Mehmet (Fatih Sultan Mehmed Han) döneminde Osmanlı Devleti'nin imparatorluk statüsüne kavuştuğu dönemde, devletin kontrolündeki kiliselerin teşkilatlanmasıyla devletin teşkilatlandırdığı millet sistemi başlatılmıştır. Bu sistem 'Cemaatlerde XV. XIX yüzyıl. Yüzyılın sonuna kadar "Millet" olarak adlandırıldı. Bu gayrimüslim topluluklar, coğrafyada her zaman kendi milleti olarak anılmasa da devletin organize ettiği millet sistemi ile yaşamlarını sürdürmüşlerdir. (Öztürk, 2014)

[11]

Gayrimüslim tebaanın Osmanlı idaresi 19. yüzyıla kadar tek tip olmamasına ve bölge ve gruba göre değişiklik göstermesine rağmen, daha önceki dönemler için bazı ortak kalıpları tespit etmek mümkündür. Hıristiyan ve Yahudi topluluklarına büyük ölçüde özerklik verildi. Bu toplulukların vergi tahsilatı, eğitimi, hukuk ve din işleri kendi liderleri tarafından yönetiliyordu. Bu, Osmanlıların çeşitli halkları "en az direnişle" yönetmesini sağladı. Özellikle Yahudi cemaati, Osmanlı idaresi altında refaha kavuşmuş ve İspanya'dan sürülen Yahudilerin gelişiyle safları şişmiştir. Aynı zamanda, gayrimüslimler çeşitli ayrımcılığa maruz kaldılar ve Osmanlı yönetici elitinden dışlandılar.

Ortodoks Hıristiyanlar, İslam tarafından fethedilen ancak belirli bir özerkliğe sahip olan Rum Millet (millet-i Rûm) veya "Roma ulusu"na dahil edildi. Adını Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun Roma ("Bizans") tebaasından almıştır, ancak Ortodoks Yunanlılar, Bulgarlar, Arnavutlar, Gürcüler, Araplar, Aromanlar, Megleno-Romenler ve Sırplar, etnik köken ve dil farklılıklarına rağmen aynı milletin parçası olarak kabul edildi. ve dini hiyerarşinin Yunan egemenliğinde olmasına rağmen. Bununla birlikte, etnik kimlikler hiçbir zaman ortadan kalkmadı ve Balkan topraklarındaki etnik grupları şöyle sıralayan 1680 tarihli bir Padişah Fermanında açıkça görüldüğü gibi bir tür etnik kimlik korundu: Yunanlılar (Rum), Arnavutlar (Arnaut), Sırplar (Sirf), " Ulahlar" (Eflak, Aromanlılar ve Megleno-Romenler'e atıfta bulunur) ve Bulgarlar (Bulgar).[12]

19. yüzyıla kadar, Ermeni Apostolik Kilisesi'ne, Ermeni Katolik Kilisesi'ne veya (19. yüzyılda kurulan Ermeni Protestan Kilisesi'ne) ait olup olmadıklarına bakılmaksızın tüm etnik Ermenilere hizmet eden tek bir Ermeni milleti vardı. [13]Ancak daha sonra ayrı bir Katolik darı ortaya çıktı. Teolojik olarak Ermeni Kilisesi'ne bağlı olan kiliselerden (Kalkedon olmamaları nedeniyle) Ermeni olmayanlar, kendi Patrikleriyle ayrı bir hiyerarşi sürdürmelerine rağmen, Ermeni Patrikhanesi'nin yetkisi altındaydılar. Bu gruplar Süryani Ortodoksları ve Kıptileri içeriyordu.

Türkçe'de 'Asuri' olarak anılır, Hıristiyan mezhebine göre bölünmüş Asuriler böylece Osmanlı hükümeti için ayrı etnik gruplar olarak kabul edildi. Süryani Katolik cemaati kendi milleti olarak tanındı. Keldani topluluğu kendi darı olarak kabul edildi.[14]

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndaki Süryani Ortodoks topluluğu uzun süre kendi milleti olarak değil, Ermeni milletinin (Ermeni Patriği altında) bir parçası olarak kabul edildi. Daha sonra Tanzimat reformları sırasında Süryani Ortodokslarına kendi milletlerinin tanınmasıyla bağımsız statü verildi.[15]

Millet sistemi altında Yahudiler , diğer milletlerin (örneğin Ortodoks milleti, Ermeni milleti vb.) yanında din temelinde bir topluluk olarak örgütlendiler. Millet çerçevesinde önemli miktarda idari özerkliğe sahiplerdi ve Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndaki Yahudiler arasında yasama, yargılama ve yasaları uygulama konusunda geniş yetkilere sahip olan ve genellikle Sultan'ın divanına oturan Hakhambaşı tarafından temsil ediliyorlardı. Osmanlı Yahudileri, Ortodokslarınkine benzer ayrıcalıklara sahipti. Yahudiler, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun diğer millet toplulukları gibi, hâlâ ehl-i kitap olarak kabul edilmekte ve İslam'ın şeriat kanunlarıyla korunmaktadırlar. Bununla birlikte, Yahudiler, hukuk nazarında Müslümanlarla eşit bir oyun sahasında görülmemekle birlikte, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde hala nispeten iyi muamele gördüler.[16]

Konstantinopolis'in düşmesinden sonra, Sultan'ın topraklarına dahil edilen tek Latin Katolik grup, Bizans başkentinde yaşayan Cenevizliler idi. Sonraki on yıllarda, Türk orduları Balkanlar'a girerek Arnavutluk, Bulgaristan, Bosna ve Macaristan'daki Katolik nüfusu ele geçirdi. Doğu'da, 16. yüzyılda Lübnan Maronitleri, Filistin Latinleri ve bir zamanlar Latin Katolik topluluklarını barındıran Yunan adalarının çoğu Türk egemenliğine girdi. Bu toplulukların kaybına Papa'nın tepkisi başlangıçta bir haçlı seferi çağrısıydı, ancak Avrupa Katolik hükümdarlarından gelen yanıt zayıftı: Üstelik Fransız çıkarları, Habsburglara karşı Türklerle ittifakta yatıyordu.[17]

Osmanlı yönetimi, hücresel eğitimin içeriğine uygun olarak mensubiyete değil, cemaat mensubiyetine dayanıyordu. Bu anlamda devlet muhatap olarak birey olarak değil, bireye sosyal statü kazandıran gruplar/topluluklar olarak kabul edilmiştir. (Ceylan, January 2002). Osmanlı toplumunda genel kabul görmüş dört millet (Millet-i Erbia) vardı. Bunlar Müslüman milleti, Rum milleti, Ermeni milleti ve Yahudi milletidir. Müslüman milleti (Millet-i Hâkime), Ermeni milleti (Millet-i Sadıka) olarak adlandırılır. Ermenilere verilen bu isim onların sadakatinden olsa gerek. Müslüman milleti var eden unsurlar Türkler, Araplar, Arnavutlar, Boşnaklar, Berberiler, Çerkezler, Gürcüler, Abazalar ve Çeçenler'dir. din ve mezhep. Osmanlı Devleti'nde millet sistemini oluşturan grupların tamamına yakını bir ölçüde dışa bağımlı olmakla birlikte kendi ulus idarelerinin kontrolü altındaydılar. Bireylerin her türlü sorumluluğu kendi topluluklarına ve milletlerine karşıdır. Buna göre Osmanlı Devleti'nde gayrimüslim bir kişi, idarî ve mali konularda önce millet idaresine sonra da devlete karşı sorumluydu.

Toplumu bu tür gruplara ayırmanın temel amacı, bir imparatorluğun yönetiminde insanlar birey olarak değil, devlet tarafından bir topluluk olarak ele alınmaktadır. İmparatorluk kendi çıkarlarını korumaya çalışırken, tebaasıyla olan ilişkilerinde de bu milli sistemi kullanmıştır. Yani devlet bu grupları net çizgilerle ayırarak egemenliğini sağlamıştır. Neredeyse değişmeyen bir denge unsuru oluşturan bu yöntemle toplumu yönetmek daha kolay ve akılcı hale gelmiştir. Çünkü milletlerin reisleri, ibadet yerlerinin teşkilatlanması çerçevesinde en üst noktada devletin onayına bağlıydılar. Bu nedenle yönetim tarafından şahıslara değil, kendisine bağlı toplulukların bulunması daha uygun görülmüştür. Nitekim Osmanlı yönetimi, gayrimüslimlerle vergiler dışında şahıs olarak değil, cemaat-millet olarak muhatap olmuştur. Sosyal organizasyonun temelini oluşturan bu topluluklar ve milletler arasında geçiş yapmak kesinlikle yasaktır. Özellikle nitelikleri diğerlerinden daha fazla olan Müslüman millet, bu nakil sınıfı açısından en ayrıcalıklı olandır. Çünkü İslam düşüncesi çerçevesinde İslam'dan çıkmak kesinlikle yasaktır. Bu bakımdan Osmanlı hukuk ve sosyal sistemi, Müslüman milleti terk edip başka bir millete girmesini kesinlikle yasaklamıştır.

19. yüzyıl (Reformasyon Dönemi)

19. yüzyılda birkaç Uniat ve Protestan Hıristiyan cemaati için, daha sonra 1870'de bir Osmanlı fermanı tarafından Bulgar Milleti olarak tanınan ve iki yıl sonra Yunan Ortodoks Patrikhanesi tarafından filetizm taraftarları olarak aforoz edilen ayrı Doğu Ortodoks Bulgar Kilisesi için yeni milletler oluşturuldu. (kilise organizasyonunda ulusal veya etnik ilke). Birinci Dünya Savaşı'ndan önceki dönemde İmparatorluk içinde on yedi millet vardı.

Darı Sisteminin Çöküşü

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun merkezi otoritesinin kademeli olarak azalması, Batı ülkelerinin Osmanlı İmparatorluğu üzerindeki etkisinin artmasına karşılık geldi. Ağırlıklı olarak Kapitülasyonlardan kaynaklanan bu etki, millet sistemi ve Zımmi'nin durumu üzerinde de büyük etki yaratmıştır. 19. Yüzyıl reformları, bu değişikliklere ve millet sistemini yeniden kurma çabalarına doğrudan tepkiler olmuştur. Dolayısıyla reformlar ve millet sisteminin çöküşü, milliyetçi ayrılıkçı hareketler ve uluslararası baskılarla bağlantılı olarak düşünülmelidir. Osmanlı padişahları, milletlerin itaatini sağlamak ve üzerlerindeki Batı etkisini ortadan kaldırmak için millet sisteminde reform yaptılar. Önceki sistemde, hukuk işlerinde Müslümanlara ve gayrimüslimlere eşit ve adil davranılırdı. Ancak darı sisteminin çeşitlilik ve kimliklerin korunmasına yardımcı olan bazı unsurları, Müslümanları ve gayrimüslimleri ayırt edecek şekilde işledi. Böyle bir farklılaşma, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun altın çağlarında bir sorun değildi. Ancak Osmanlı'nın zayıflaması ve milliyetçi eleştirilere açık hale gelmesi ile ciddi sorunlar oluşturmuştur. Başka bir deyişle, geleneksel eşitlikçi sistem, düzeni sağlamak için yeterli değildi. Osmanlı Devleti gayrimüslimlere ve Müslümanlara tam bir eşitlik sağlamalıydı. Bazı tarihçilerin de teyit ettiği gibi, bu reform hareketinin temel amacı, gayrimüslim milletlerin statü farklılıklarını ortadan kaldırmak ve onları Osmanlı vatandaş kategorisine entegre etmekti.[18]

Bu ancak hem Müslümanları hem de gayrimüslimleri içine alacak yeni bir hukuk sisteminin yaratılmasıyla mümkün oldu; ve gayrimüslimlerin statüsüne dayanan tüm kısıtlamaları ortadan kaldırın. Reform dalgası, laik Batı hukuk kurallarının Osmanlı sistemine entegre edilmesi yoluyla bu amaca ulaşmayı hedefliyordu. (Ceylan, January 2002) (ERYILMAZ, 1999)Sonuç olarak, gayrimüslimlerin Osmanlı siyasetinin bir parçası olmalarına izin verilmedi. Tanzimat reformları ve müteakip fermanlarla iki toplum arasındaki eşitlik büyük ölçüde güvence altına alınmıştır. Cizye vergisi kaldırılmış, gayrimüslimler dışişleri ve mecliste yer almaya başlamıştır (Ortaylı, 2002). Bu dönemde daha önce bahsedilen vatandaşlık ilkelerinin fiili uygulaması gerçek olmuştur. Böylece 19. yüzyılda her iki topluluğa da iki ayrı cemaat yerine Osmanlı vatandaşı deniliyordu. (ERYILMAZ, 1999)1856 Islahat Millet için yeni fırsatlar getirdi. Ceylan'a göre bu yeni düzenlemelerden en önemlisi, her milletten kendi anayasal reformlarını yapmasının istenmesiydi. (Ceylan, January 2002)Ancak bu reformların hiçbiri, ne millet sisteminin ne de Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun korunmasına yardımcı olamadı.

Reformlar ilk sistemi değiştirdi ve Osmanlı hükümet ve ekonomik yapısı yeni sistemin gereklerini karşılayamadı. Osmanlı merkezi otoritesi büyük ölçüde zayıfladı ve gücün milletlere devredilmesi bu zayıflamayı durdurmadı. Böylece erken dönem çok kültürlülük uygulamalarının önemli bir örneği olan bir sistem Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ile birlikte çökmüştür.

Hem İmparatorluğun zayıflamasının hem de millet sisteminin çöküşünün en önemli sebepleri arasında reformların görece başarısız olması ve gerek Müslüman gerekse gayrimüslimlerin değişim fikrine direnmesinin etkili olduğu söylenebilir.

Çözüm

Geleneklere uygun olarak din/mezhep ayrımını takip eden sosyal/siyasal bir yapılanma olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu sistemde gayrimüslimler, devlete din/mezhep kriterleri ile hiyerarşik bir yapılanma süreci ile bağlıdırlar.

Yukarıda bahsi geçen tartışmaların da işaret ettiği gibi millet sistemi bir efsane olmaktan çok uzaktı. Önemli ölçüde eşitlikçi bir sistem olmasına rağmen tam bir eşitlik içermiyordu. Çağ değiştikçe ve modernite değerleri Osmanlı Devleti'ne yayıldıkça sistemin yeniden düzenlenmesi gerekiyordu. Ancak modern çağda ne millet sistemi ne de İmparatorluk ayakta kalabilmiştir.

[19]

İlgilenenler için kaynakça

[1] Britannica, Ansiklopedinin Editörleri. "Darı". Ansiklopedi Britannica , 7 Eylül 2010, https://www.britannica.com/topic/millet-religious-group. Erişim tarihi: 28 Nisan 2021.

[2]Ursinus, Sağlık Bakanlığı (1993). "Darı". Bosworth, C.E.'de ; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, WP & Pellat, Ch. (ed.). İslam Ansiklopedisi, Yeni Baskı, Cilt VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: EJ Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.

[3]Ursinus, Sağlık Bakanlığı (1993). "Darı". Bosworth, C.E.'de ; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, WP & Pellat, Ch. (ed.). İslam Ansiklopedisi, Yeni Baskı, Cilt VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: EJ Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.

[4]Ursinus, Sağlık Bakanlığı (1993). "Darı". Bosworth, C.E.'de ; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, WP & Pellat, Ch. (ed.). İslam Ansiklopedisi, Yeni Baskı, Cilt VII: Mif–Naz. Leiden: EJ Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.

[5]Quataert, Donald (2005). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press (Kindle baskısı). s. 175–176.

[6]Darı, Bruce Masters, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Ansiklopedisi, Ed. Gábor Ágoston ve Bruce Alan Masters, (InfoBase Publishing, 2009), s. 383

[7]Öztürk, Fatih. "Osmanlı Millet Sistemi". s. 71–86. - Alıntılanan: s. 72

[8] Öztürk, Fatih. "Osmanlı Millet Sistemi". s. 71–86. - Alıntılanan: s. 72

[9] Britannica, Ansiklopedinin Editörleri. "Darı". Ansiklopedi Britannica , 7 Eylül 2010, https://www.britannica.com/topic/millet-religious-group. Erişim tarihi: 28 Nisan 2021.

[10] ORTAYLI, İ. 2002: “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Millet Sistemi”, Türkler, C. X, s. 216-220, Ankara

[11] 16. yüzyılda Osmanlı İmparatorluğu topraklarında hüküm süren dinlerin haritası. Darıların aslında bölgesel olmadığını unutmayın. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)#/media/File:OttomanMillets.jpg

[12] Azınlıklar (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu/Orta Doğu) | Uluslararası Birinci Dünya Savaşı Ansiklopedisi (WW1)". ansiklopedi.1914-1918- online .net. https://encyclopedia.1914-1918- online .net/article/ minorities_ottoman_empiremiddle_east

[13] Ortaylı, İlber (2006), Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı [ The Last Empire: Ottoman Empire ], İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), s. 87–89

[14] "Azınlıklar (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu/Orta Doğu) | Birinci Dünya Savaşı'nın Uluslararası Ansiklopedisi (WW1)" . ansiklopedi.1914-1918- çevrimiçi .net . 7 Kasım 2019'da alındı . https://encyclopedia.1914-1918- çevrimiçi .net/article/ minorities_ottoman_empiremiddle_east

[15] . Taylor, William (2014). Kimlik Anlatıları: Süryani Ortodoks Kilisesi ve İngiltere Kilisesi 1895-1914 . Cambridge Akademisyenleri Yayıncılık. s. 84-87.

[16] Ortaylı, İlber (2006), Son İmparatorluk Osmanlı [ Son İmparatorluk: Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ] (Türkçe), İstanbul: Timaş Yayınları (Timaş Press), s. 87–89

[17] Din ve Ident Siyaseti, Ger Duijzings, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2000 s. 28.

[18] Bozkurt, Gülnihal.Alman - İngiliz Belgelerinin ve Siyasi Gelişmelerin Işığı Altında Gayrimüslim OsmanlıVatandaşlarının Hukuki Durumu (1839 -1914)

· Ek kaynaklar

· [19]Osmanlı'da Darı Sistemi : Olağanüstü Bir Politika - Yunus BOR (https://www.academia.edu/7521006/Millet_system_in_Ottoman_Empire)

· Osmanlı Devleti'nde Millet Sistemi; Uğur KURTARAN ; Dumlupınar Üniversitesi ; Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi Sayı 8, Güz 2011, 57-71

· "Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Darı Sistemi" . Oxford Bibliyografyaları . Oxford Üniversitesi Yayınları .

· Ahmet İçduygu ve B. Ali Soner (2006) Türk azınlık hakları rejimi: Farklılık ve eşitlik arasında, Middle Eastern Studies, 42:3, 447 468 ( https://www.academia.edu/34897204/Middle_Eastern_Studies_Turkish_minority_rights_regime_Between_difference_and_equality )

· Abdullah Özkan ; Bir Zamanlar Osmanlı 'Padişahlar Atlası';Boyut Yayıncılık A.Ş(2012) .; s.6-21 ISBN 978-975-23-1010-0

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