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Gathering of Officials
In the chamber known as the “Lion House,” Kaymakam Pasha, along with viziers, scholars, the Sheikhulislam, and other state officials, assembled.
Announcement of Accession
Meanwhile, cannons fired from various locations, including Saray Point, the Castle of the Seven Towers, the Maiden’s Tower, and forts, to signify the Sultan’s accession while preparations for the deceased ruler’s burial were underway.
Entry into the Holy Relics Department
Kaymakam Pasha, the Master Sheikhulislam, and the Admiral proceeded to the department of Holy Relics where Sultan Selim III awaited. There, ceremonial garments and accessories were bestowed upon them.
Attire Signifying Status
High-ranking officials, including the Chief black eunuch of the Harem and the Sultan’s sword-bearer, were also dressed in fur coats, symbolizing their stature, before entering the “Holy Relics” department.
Preparation for the Sultan’s Arrival
Upon completion of attire arrangements, the Chief white eunuch informed the Sultan of the readiness. Meanwhile, Kaymakam Pasha, the Admiral, and the Sheikhulislam awaited near the Imperial Throne, ensuring everything was in order Istanbul Private Tours Mevlevi.
Sultan’s Entrance and Attire
Finally, Sultan Selim III arrived and took his place on the throne adorned with a scarlet turban, a Yusufi crest, and a jeweled fur cloak called “Kapaniqe,” receiving applause from those present.
This ceremonial event highlights the formalities and protocols observed during the accession of Sultan Selim III, emphasizing the significance of attire and symbolic gestures in Ottoman court ceremonies.
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Economic Burdens and Rising Unrest
The heavy taxation imposed on the agricultural population, often reaching up to twenty or thirty percent, placed significant financial strain on the villagers. These taxes, subject to the whims of tax collectors, were suddenly doubled, leading to further hardships, forced sales of property, and escalating tensions between villagers and tax collectors.
Taxation Woes
The abrupt demand for advance payment of taxes for 1876 exacerbated the villagers’ plight, resulting in more forced sales, extortion, and clashes with tax collectors. This economic turmoil fueled discontent and prompted secret gatherings among the young men of the village.
Seeds of Rebellion
Inspired by the independence movements in neighboring regions like Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Servia, the young men of the village began discussing plans to overthrow Turkish rule and assert their own independence. Despite being far from a coordinated uprising Tour Packages Bulgaria, these discussions marked the early stages of what would later become known as the insurrection.
External Influence
Contrary to Turkish and diplomatic assertions, the insurrection in Panagurishti was not incited by external forces like Russians or Servians. Instead, it was driven by local Bulgarians, some of whom were studying or working in Bucharest. These individuals, comprising the Insurrectional Committee, played a pivotal role in organizing and fueling the rebellion.
Raika’s Innocence
Raika, despite her prominent position in the village, had no involvement in inciting the rebellion. Her first inkling of the brewing unrest came during a surprising encounter at a supposed school committee meeting. Instead of the usual attendees, she found herself amidst young men listening to a fervent speech advocating for rebellion, delivered by a mysterious figure named Bankovsky.
The seeds of rebellion sown in Panagurishti were rooted in economic hardship and discontent among the villagers. While external influences were minimal, local grievances and aspirations for independence drove the nascent insurrection. Raika’s inadvertent involvement serves as a testament to the tumultuous times and the complex dynamics at play in rural Bulgaria during this period of unrest.
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Investigating Turkish Atrocities in Bulgaria
Mission of Investigation
Arriving in Philippopolis, the principal town in the region ravaged by the Bashi-Bazouks, I embarked on a mission to uncover the truth behind the atrocities gripping Europe’s attention. With Philippopolis serving as a focal point, reliable information about the ongoing horrors could be gleaned. Joining me in this endeavor were Mr. Baring, who had already commenced his investigation, and Mr. Schuyler, the American Consul-General, tasked with a dual purpose: investigating the atrocities and exploring measures to protect American missionary families scattered across Bulgaria.
Disparity in Consular Presence
Despite the gravity of the situation, it struck me as peculiar that while Austria, Greece, Russia, and France all maintained consular representation in Philippopolis, the absence of an English agent was glaring. While other governments received detailed reports from their consuls, the English government, lacking a presence in Philippopolis, remained relatively uninformed. The sole English consul stationed in Adrianople, though well-intentioned, was incapacitated by poor health, leaving England at a disadvantage in terms of timely and accurate intelligence Turkey Sightseeing.
Urgent Need for Information
The absence of English representation underscores the pressing need for comprehensive and up-to-date information on the atrocities unfolding in Bulgaria. In an age where well-informed newspapers play a crucial role in shaping public opinion, the lack of direct English involvement leaves a void that jeopardizes the dissemination of accurate accounts of the events. As other governments and newspapers diligently gather data, England risks lagging behind in its understanding of the situation and formulating an appropriate response.
As I delve deeper into my investigation, it becomes increasingly evident that the atrocities in Bulgaria demand urgent attention and a concerted international response. The disparity in consular presence highlights the need for greater English involvement in gathering information and shaping policy decisions. In the face of unspeakable horrors, it is imperative that all nations, including England, actively engage in addressing the crisis and advocating for justice and accountability.
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Economic Transformations in Bulgaria
From Turkish Domination to Industrialization
Turkish Rule and Agrarian Economy (1396-1878)
For five centuries, from 1396 to 1878, Bulgaria endured Turkish domination, maintaining an agrarian economy with features reminiscent of medieval serfdom. In the latter part of the 18th century, Turkish landlords leased vast landholdings through izpolitza or kisim systems. In the izpolitza, farmers paid half of their yield to landlords as rent, while the kisim system predetermined rent, irrespective of yield.
Urbanization and Industrialization (Late 18th Century)
Urbanization and industrialization gained momentum toward the late 18th century, leading to a rise in urban population and non-agrarian occupations. This shift modified the primitive agrarian economy to align with the growing demands of urban markets. The 1834 land reform significantly impacted large landholders, fostering increased ownership of medium and small farms. The reform also marked the elimination of angaria, or wageless farm-work. Districts like Plovdiv and Pazardzhik saw crop specialization, with rice cultivation in Plovdiv and the production of rose oil in Karlovo and Kazanluk Guided Istanbul Tours.
Artisan Work and Craftsmanship (First Half of 19th Century)
The first half of the 19th century witnessed the zenith of artisan work in Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire’s demand for products like coarse woolen cloth, belts, knitted socks, yarn, leather goods, and hardware fueled the growth of craftsmanship. Craftsmen, organized in corporative groups akin to medieval European guilds, followed a strict hierarchy of apprentices, journeymen, and grandmasters. These organizations aimed to regulate production and minimize competition.
“Scattered Manufactory” System and Early Industrialization
The “scattered manufactory” system brought an economic expansion, where affluent merchants supplied raw materials to artisans, receiving finished products in return. These products, including yarn and aba cloth, were then sold in the Turkish market. The initial steps towards industrialization were marked by the establishment of the first machine-run weaving factory in Sliven in 1838.
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Economic Transformations in Bulgaria
From Turkish Domination to Industrialization
Turkish Rule and Agrarian Economy (1396-1878)
For five centuries, from 1396 to 1878, Bulgaria endured Turkish domination, maintaining an agrarian economy with features reminiscent of medieval serfdom. In the latter part of the 18th century, Turkish landlords leased vast landholdings through izpolitza or kisim systems. In the izpolitza, farmers paid half of their yield to landlords as rent, while the kisim system predetermined rent, irrespective of yield.
Urbanization and Industrialization (Late 18th Century)
Urbanization and industrialization gained momentum toward the late 18th century, leading to a rise in urban population and non-agrarian occupations. This shift modified the primitive agrarian economy to align with the growing demands of urban markets. The 1834 land reform significantly impacted large landholders, fostering increased ownership of medium and small farms. The reform also marked the elimination of angaria, or wageless farm-work. Districts like Plovdiv and Pazardzhik saw crop specialization, with rice cultivation in Plovdiv and the production of rose oil in Karlovo and Kazanluk Guided Istanbul Tours.
Artisan Work and Craftsmanship (First Half of 19th Century)
The first half of the 19th century witnessed the zenith of artisan work in Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire’s demand for products like coarse woolen cloth, belts, knitted socks, yarn, leather goods, and hardware fueled the growth of craftsmanship. Craftsmen, organized in corporative groups akin to medieval European guilds, followed a strict hierarchy of apprentices, journeymen, and grandmasters. These organizations aimed to regulate production and minimize competition.
“Scattered Manufactory” System and Early Industrialization
The “scattered manufactory” system brought an economic expansion, where affluent merchants supplied raw materials to artisans, receiving finished products in return. These products, including yarn and aba cloth, were then sold in the Turkish market. The initial steps towards industrialization were marked by the establishment of the first machine-run weaving factory in Sliven in 1838.
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The Reigns of Chervenkov and Zhivkov
Chervenkov’s Rule (1949-1953)
Valko Chervenkov ruled Bulgaria from 1949 to 1953, a period that witnessed the implementation of the first five-year plan for national economic development, known as the peripetia. During this time, Chervenkov introduced typical features of a socialist society, mirroring the Soviet Union. While the era saw grand construction projects on a national scale, such as roads, dams, plants, and buildings, Chervenkov’s leadership also marked the establishment of a “Stalinist personality cult” in Bulgaria, with his own persona elevated above all else.
Bulgaria and the Warsaw Treaty Organization
In 1955, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was founded on May 14th as a military and political union among eight socialist states, serving as a counterbalance to the existing North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This event further intensified the division of Europe during the “cold war” years, with Bulgaria positioned behind the “iron curtain.”
The Zhivkov Era
Following Stalin’s death in 1953, Bulgaria’s communist leadership, including Todor Zhivkov, had to moderate the regime. Todor Zhivkov, a member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, quickly adapted to the changing political landscape, aligning with the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev’s criticism of Stalin’s “personality cult” at the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956 had a profound impact City Tours Istanbul.
Rise of Todor Zhivkov
Todor Zhivkov attracted Khrushchev’s attention, and he began consolidating party and state power. The “Zhivkov era” spanned seven five-year plans for national economic development, marking a significant period in recent Bulgarian history. Until November 10, 1989, Zhivkov remained unchallenged at the helm of the Bulgarian Communist Party, serving as its First or General Secretary of the Central Committee. His leadership of over three decades solidified absolute and undivided control over the party and the state.
The periods of Chervenkov and Zhivkov marked Bulgaria’s journey under communism, witnessing economic plans, political shifts, and a prolonged era of undisputed leadership by Todor Zhivkov.
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The Reigns of Chervenkov and Zhivkov
Chervenkov’s Rule (1949-1953)
Valko Chervenkov ruled Bulgaria from 1949 to 1953, a period that witnessed the implementation of the first five-year plan for national economic development, known as the peripetia. During this time, Chervenkov introduced typical features of a socialist society, mirroring the Soviet Union. While the era saw grand construction projects on a national scale, such as roads, dams, plants, and buildings, Chervenkov’s leadership also marked the establishment of a “Stalinist personality cult” in Bulgaria, with his own persona elevated above all else.
Bulgaria and the Warsaw Treaty Organization
In 1955, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was founded on May 14th as a military and political union among eight socialist states, serving as a counterbalance to the existing North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This event further intensified the division of Europe during the “cold war” years, with Bulgaria positioned behind the “iron curtain.”
The Zhivkov Era
Following Stalin’s death in 1953, Bulgaria’s communist leadership, including Todor Zhivkov, had to moderate the regime. Todor Zhivkov, a member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, quickly adapted to the changing political landscape, aligning with the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev’s criticism of Stalin’s “personality cult” at the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956 had a profound impact City Tours Istanbul.
Rise of Todor Zhivkov
Todor Zhivkov attracted Khrushchev’s attention, and he began consolidating party and state power. The “Zhivkov era” spanned seven five-year plans for national economic development, marking a significant period in recent Bulgarian history. Until November 10, 1989, Zhivkov remained unchallenged at the helm of the Bulgarian Communist Party, serving as its First or General Secretary of the Central Committee. His leadership of over three decades solidified absolute and undivided control over the party and the state.
The periods of Chervenkov and Zhivkov marked Bulgaria’s journey under communism, witnessing economic plans, political shifts, and a prolonged era of undisputed leadership by Todor Zhivkov.
0 notes
Photo
The Reigns of Chervenkov and Zhivkov
Chervenkov’s Rule (1949-1953)
Valko Chervenkov ruled Bulgaria from 1949 to 1953, a period that witnessed the implementation of the first five-year plan for national economic development, known as the peripetia. During this time, Chervenkov introduced typical features of a socialist society, mirroring the Soviet Union. While the era saw grand construction projects on a national scale, such as roads, dams, plants, and buildings, Chervenkov’s leadership also marked the establishment of a “Stalinist personality cult” in Bulgaria, with his own persona elevated above all else.
Bulgaria and the Warsaw Treaty Organization
In 1955, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was founded on May 14th as a military and political union among eight socialist states, serving as a counterbalance to the existing North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This event further intensified the division of Europe during the “cold war” years, with Bulgaria positioned behind the “iron curtain.”
The Zhivkov Era
Following Stalin’s death in 1953, Bulgaria’s communist leadership, including Todor Zhivkov, had to moderate the regime. Todor Zhivkov, a member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, quickly adapted to the changing political landscape, aligning with the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev’s criticism of Stalin’s “personality cult” at the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956 had a profound impact City Tours Istanbul.
Rise of Todor Zhivkov
Todor Zhivkov attracted Khrushchev’s attention, and he began consolidating party and state power. The “Zhivkov era” spanned seven five-year plans for national economic development, marking a significant period in recent Bulgarian history. Until November 10, 1989, Zhivkov remained unchallenged at the helm of the Bulgarian Communist Party, serving as its First or General Secretary of the Central Committee. His leadership of over three decades solidified absolute and undivided control over the party and the state.
The periods of Chervenkov and Zhivkov marked Bulgaria’s journey under communism, witnessing economic plans, political shifts, and a prolonged era of undisputed leadership by Todor Zhivkov.
0 notes
Photo
The Reigns of Chervenkov and Zhivkov
Chervenkov’s Rule (1949-1953)
Valko Chervenkov ruled Bulgaria from 1949 to 1953, a period that witnessed the implementation of the first five-year plan for national economic development, known as the peripetia. During this time, Chervenkov introduced typical features of a socialist society, mirroring the Soviet Union. While the era saw grand construction projects on a national scale, such as roads, dams, plants, and buildings, Chervenkov’s leadership also marked the establishment of a “Stalinist personality cult” in Bulgaria, with his own persona elevated above all else.
Bulgaria and the Warsaw Treaty Organization
In 1955, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was founded on May 14th as a military and political union among eight socialist states, serving as a counterbalance to the existing North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This event further intensified the division of Europe during the “cold war” years, with Bulgaria positioned behind the “iron curtain.”
The Zhivkov Era
Following Stalin’s death in 1953, Bulgaria’s communist leadership, including Todor Zhivkov, had to moderate the regime. Todor Zhivkov, a member of the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, quickly adapted to the changing political landscape, aligning with the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Khrushchev’s criticism of Stalin’s “personality cult” at the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956 had a profound impact City Tours Istanbul.
Rise of Todor Zhivkov
Todor Zhivkov attracted Khrushchev’s attention, and he began consolidating party and state power. The “Zhivkov era” spanned seven five-year plans for national economic development, marking a significant period in recent Bulgarian history. Until November 10, 1989, Zhivkov remained unchallenged at the helm of the Bulgarian Communist Party, serving as its First or General Secretary of the Central Committee. His leadership of over three decades solidified absolute and undivided control over the party and the state.
The periods of Chervenkov and Zhivkov marked Bulgaria’s journey under communism, witnessing economic plans, political shifts, and a prolonged era of undisputed leadership by Todor Zhivkov.
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Turkish Villagers Perpetrate Heinous Crimes Against Bulgarian Locals
A Disturbing Pattern of Violence Unveiled
This article delves into the harrowing accounts of violence suffered by Bulgarian locals at the hands of Turkish villagers. From stolen cattle to sexual assault and brutal physical attacks, a disturbing pattern of aggression unfolds, revealing the stark reality faced by the residents of Klissura, Avrat-Alan, Otluk-kui, Philippopolis, Slievena, and Turnova.
Stolen Cattle and Unscrupulous Transactions
The journey from Klissura to Avrat-Alan reveals a brazen display of stolen cattle. Three Turks, offering about thirty head of cattle at a significantly reduced price, provide a glaring example of the unscrupulous transactions taking place. This incident underscores the economic exploitation faced by Bulgarian villagers, adding to their myriad challenges.
A Woman’s Terrifying Ordeal
At Otluk-kui, a woman recounts a horrifying incident of sexual violence. While working in the fields with a man and a boy, they fell victim to Turkish assailants who seized, bound, and violated the woman. The sheer brutality of this act highlights the vulnerability of Bulgarian villagers, particularly women, to the unchecked aggression of their Turkish neighbors Bulgaria Tour.
Victims Bear the Physical Scars
Even in the relatively urban setting of Philippopolis, victims with fresh sabre cuts approach Mr. Schuyler. Two men and a boy display the physical scars of violence endured just days prior. The severity of these injuries, including eight gashes on one victim, illustrates the intensity of the assaults suffered at the hands of Turkish aggressors.
More Tales of Brutality
The narrative extends to Slievena and Turnova, where more victims seek refuge from recent acts of savagery. Fresh sabre cuts, a symbol of the rampant violence, are showcased once again. Even innocent individuals, like the boy delivering dinner in Turnova, fall prey to the brutality of zaptiehs, highlighting the indiscriminate nature of these attacks.
Urgent Call for Intervention and Justice
The relentless violence inflicted upon Bulgarian villagers demands immediate attention and intervention. The article concludes with a plea for justice, emphasizing the urgent need to address this escalating crisis. It calls on local authorities, international bodies, and humanitarian organizations to collaborate in creating a protective framework that shields Bulgarian locals from the relentless aggression perpetrated by their Turkish neighbors.
A Cry Against Impunity
In a final reflection, the article condemns the culture of impunity surrounding these acts of violence. It calls for global awareness and condemnation of the atrocities faced by Bulgarian villagers, urging the international community to unite in holding the perpetrators accountable and fostering an environment where such heinous crimes have no place.
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Amidst Beauty and Ruin
Traversing the Charmed and Scarred Landscape of Otluk-kui
The Lush Oasis Within Desolation Houses and Gardens
As one traverses the remnants of Otluk-kui, a village steeped in tragedy, the juxtaposition of comfort and destruction becomes a haunting testament to the resilience of the human spirit amidst adversity. The houses, though now bearing the scars of the recent horrors, once stood as symbols of comfort and solidity. These well-constructed abodes, partly surrounded by gardens and fruit trees, created a picturesque setting where luxuriant foliage hung over walls, offering a charming freshness that now serves as a poignant contrast to the blackened ruins.
The gardens, once vibrant with life, have become silent witnesses to the atrocities that unfolded. The juxtaposition of the verdant greenery against the backdrop of destruction is a visual representation of the dichotomy that defines Otluk-kui—a village that was both a haven of beauty and a theater of horrors. The haunting charm that once emanated from these gardens is now overshadowed by the ghostly echoes of the past.
Saddling Horses, Muffling Cries Journeying to Avrat-Alan
The next chapter of our exploration unfolded as we mounted horses in Otluk-kui, eager to leave behind the haunting scenes etched into the village’s history. The horses, symbols of mobility and escape, were brought to us around one o’clock. Amidst a crowd of onlookers, we embarked on a journey toward Avrat-Alan, also known as Kuprishstitza in Bulgarian—a destination nestled a few miles to the north Travel Bulgaria, higher up in the mountains.
The act of mounting horses, typically a symbol of adventure and exploration, took on a somber tone as the mournful cries of the gathered crowd accompanied our departure. Their cries, laden with the weight of sorrow and perhaps a plea for remembrance, followed us, compelling even the riders to shield their ears from the haunting sounds. The departure from Otluk-kui became a symbolic transition from a place marred by tragedy to the anticipation of what lay ahead in the higher reaches of the mountains.
The journey to Avrat-Alan, set against the backdrop of the desolation left in Otluk-kui, becomes a narrative thread that weaves through contrasting landscapes—from the lush charm of a village ravaged by horror to the promise of new vistas higher up in the mountains. The horses, though serving as mere means of transportation, carried with them the echoes of Otluk-kui’s sorrow, marking the beginning of a transformative expedition through landscapes scarred and untouched.
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Any European country
A more impudent falsehood was never uttered, even by a Turk. Mr-Schuyler has obtained their tax-list for this year, and finds that there were 1,421 able-bodied men assessed to pay the military exemption tax. This number in any European country would indicate a population of about 15,000, but here it would not give more than from 8,000 to 10,000 souls, all told, and this is the figure at which the population of the place is estimated by the inhabitants, as well as by the people of Pestera.
I think people in England and Europe generally have a very imperfect idea of what these Bulgarians are. I have always heard them spoken of as mere savages, who were in reality not much more civilized than the American Indians; and I confess that I myself was not far from entertaining the same opinion not very long ago.
Bulgarian village
I was astonished, as I believe most of my readers will be, to learn that there is scarcely a Bulgarian village without its school; that these schools are, where they have not been burnt by the Turks, in a very flourishing condition; that they are supported by a voluntary tax levied by the Bulgarians on themselves, not only without being forced to do it by the Government, but in spite of all sorts of obstacles thrown in their way by the perversity of the Turkish authorities ; that the instruction given in these schools is gratuitous, and that all profit alike by it, poor as well as rich ; that there is scarcely a Bulgarian child that cannot read and write; and, finally, that the percentage of people who can read and write is as great in Bulgaria as in England and France.
Do the people who speak of the Bulgarians as savages happen to be aware of these facts? Again, I had thought that the burning of a Bulgarian village meant the burning of a few mud huts that were in reality of little value, and that could be easily rebuilt Guided Istanbul Tour.
I was very much astonished to find that the majority of these villages are in reality well-built towns, with solid stone houses, and that there are in all of them a comparatively large number of people who have attained to something like comfort, and that some of the villages might stand a not very unfavourable comparison with an English or French village.
The truth is that these Bulgarians, instead of the savages we have taken them for, are in reality a hardworking, industrious, honest, civilized, and peaceful people. Now, as regards the insurrection, there was a weak attempt at an insurrection in three or four villages, but none whatever in Batak, and it does not appear that a single Turk was killed here.
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PHILIPPOPOLIS
A two hours’ drive from Philippopolis over a very fair road that led through the rich and fertile valley of the ftfaritza, brought us to what had formerly been the village of Perustitza. This village wTas attacked and burnt by the Bashi-Bazouks. led by one Achmet-Aga, who must not be confounded with another
Acnmet-Aga, still more mtamous, who destroyed Batak. It was a prettily-situated little place, built, as it was, on a low hill that dominated the valley of the Maritza, and enabled its inhabitants to command a view over the rich and luxuriant valley, miles in extent.
It was, however, like so many other places that we have seen, in ruins, not one house remaining standing. We found about a thousand people, of whom the greater part were women and children, who were living in the nooks and corners of the walls, where they had constructed temporary sheds of straw capable of sheltering them from the sun, but not from the rain City Tours Istanbul.
Their present means of existence were principally the new harvest, which they were gathering slowly and painfully, without the aid of their cattle, which had been driven off by their Turkish neighbours, and partly some assistance that was given them by the Governor of Philippopolis. This is the only case we have heard of where the Turkish authorities have given any assistance whatever to the burnt villages. The cattle of the people here were all in the village of Ustuna, not more than three miles distant.
They had been there in the possession of the Turks ever since the middle of May. Not a single head had been restored to the owners, and yet the kind, plausible, earnest, conscientious Mutld-Serif of Philippopolis, with whom we were to dine that night, had assured us only the day before that the cattle had been restored to their proper owners, that the houses were being rebuilt, and help distributed to the needy.
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The struggle again the Ottoman Turks
As a young and aggressive power the Ottoman Empire expanded in Asia Minor and soon sought to conquer new lands in the Balkans and in Europe. The first settlement of the Turks on the Balkans dates back to 1352. In 1364 the army of Sultan Murad already penetrated deep in Thrace and seized Plovdiv and Stara Zagora. Meanwhile, the Hungarians launched a powerful offensive from the North-West and the Vi din kingdom fell in their hands. The Turks had planned their march in three strategic directions: along the coast of the Aegean Sea towards Macedonia; along the diagonal of the Balkan Peninsula, heading for Central Europe; towards Dobrudja and the lands beyond the Danube. In 1369 they were already in Adrianople, which became their capital city. In 1371 Tours Bulgaria, after the death of King Ivan Alexander, the united armies of the two Macedonian rulers were defeated. Now the path to the north-west, cutting through the Bulgarian lands, was already open…
Gradually the Turks seized Northern Thrace and the Rhodopes region. Then they penetrated into the North-Eastern Bulgaria, crossing the Balkan Range, and now the Ottoman menace was already imminent for Wallachia and Moldavia. Becoming aware of the danger, the Serbian King Lazar built a Christian coalition, w hich was joined, on the Bulgarian side, only by King Ivan Shishman and Ivanko, the new ruler of Dobrudja. In 1387 the Turks suffered their first, yet sole, defeat. But the battle of Kosovo Pole in the summer of 1389 was of key significance for the fortunes of the Balkan states: they collapsed one after another under the pressure of the Turks…
In 1393 the Turkish military commander Chelebi laid a three-month siege of Tumovo. Finally the city surrendered. The Turks had decided to wipe out the whole population and Patriarch Evtimiy hardly managed to persuade them that for the purpose of imposing their authority it would be sufficient to kill only 111 representatives of the nobility…
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Porphyrogenitus for his son Romanus
It was, however, probably built by Constantine Porphyrogenitus for his son Romanus, on the site of an earlier palace built by Constantine the Great, as a conveniently situated residence when reviewing the troops. The Jucundiana, Justinian’s favourite residence, was at Galata, and not at the Hebdomon as is erroneously supposed. Tekfur Sara’i is worthy of special notice as being one of the few remaining specimens of Byzantine architecture, a style which appears to have been further developed in the palaces at Venice. The building, commanding a fine view of the Golden Horn, is a three-storeyed one, with triple windows and marble sills. The immediate vicinity is now the Jewish quarter. Admission to the interior of the palace is free; the entrance is through the glass factory near the walls.
Eghri Kapil (Crooked Gate) is the sixth gate, and is the ancient Harsia, also called Porta Caligaria, from the number of military bootmakers’ shops once in the vicinity. It is the gate so bravely defended by the gallant German, Johann Grant, and by Theodore of Carystos, during the last siege by the Turks, and is also the place from which Constantine Palaeologus made his last reconnaissance on the eve of the taking of the city.
The seventh gate has disappeared long ago, and not a vestige of it now remains.
In the Hebdomon district was the site of the Blackemce Palace, which probably stood on the very spot where Awas Kffendi’s Mosque now stands. This palace was first built by Anastasius Dicorus, in 499 A.D., before the erection of the Theodosian Walls, and was originally an imperial pavilion for the use of the emperor when proceeding to Blachernse Church; but was subsequently enlarged, and in the ninth century was considerably extended by the addition of new wings, and decorated and embellished with such magnificence as to evoke the astonishment and admiration of Peter the Hermit and his Crusaders in 1096.
Alexius Comnenus
At Blachernae took place the meeting of Godfrey de Bouillon with Alexius Comnenus (see p. 12). Here also the arrangements were made with Isaac Angelus for the fourth Crusade. During the fifty-eight years of the Latin occupation the palace suffered considerable damage; but in 1261 it was restored by Michael Palaeologus (see p. 15), and was the favourite residence of the Greek emperors. It con-tinued to be the favourite residence of the Palaeologi down to the time of the taking of the city by the Turks.
The closed gateway seen half-way between the second and third towers, beyond the foot of the hill, is the Gyrolimne, once the main entrance of the Blachernae Palace. The inscription on the fourth tower sets forth that it is the tower of Isaac Angelus, built in 1188. The next tower, known as the Tower of Anemas, was a state prison attached to Blachernae Palace, and was built by Alexius Comnenus. Its name is derived from its first inmate, Anemas, imprisoned for conspiracy against that emperor in 1107. Amongst others confined in it, at different times, were the Emperor Andronicus Comnenus; John Palaeologus and his two sons; Gregory, Duke of Trebizonde; and the patriarch Yeccus.
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Bishops and the Patriarch’s throne
Gold alone was not thought good enough for the altar; this was therefore made of a combination of gems set in silver and gold. The doors were of ivory, amber, and cedar, the outer one being silver- plated. The seven seats for the bishops and the Patriarch’s throne, forming a semicircle at the back of the altar, were all silver-plated. The building contains nearly every kind of known marble, comprising the green from Laconia, the white, black- veined Bosporus marble, the white Phrygian with its pink streaks, with others from Asia Minor and Egypt. The columns number 107 in all, of which 67 are in the galleries.
More or less extensive repairs have been effected by various emperors and sultans ; the last were in 1848, in the reign of Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, and were entrusted to the Italian architects, Possati Brothers.
The Mosque of St. Sophia is 235 feet N. and S. by 250 feet E. and W. At its western end is an open court, the ancient Atrium (A), containing a round fountain, used for the Muhammadan ablutions. In the very centre of this court, very probably on the site of the Turkish fountain, stood the Phiale, a large marble basin with two jets of water constantly running, where worshippers performed their ablutions before entering the church, and which bore the inscription, NDBON ANOMH- MATA MH MONAN O’T’IN, signifying ��� Cleanse thine iniquities, not thy face only curious from the fact of its reading the same whether perused the right way or backwards. The Outer Narthex (B) with its five doors was on the eastern side of the Atrium; and the belfry (C) was over the main entrance private istanbul tour. The Outer Narthex is devoid of any ornamentation; its five doors were called ‘ the Doors of the Armenians from the latter having taken part in the fifth General Council while the doors were being built. These gave access to the Inner Narthex.
MIXAHA NIKHTHN
Both the nartheces were reserved for catechumens and penitents. This latter hall is 205 feet long by 26 feet wide, and its walls and ceiling are covered with mosaic work. At its northern and at its southern sides are low doorways, giving access to the women’s galleries. The South porch, which is a double one, was reserved for the Emperor and his suite; it was erected by the Emperor Theo- philus, and is sheathed with bronze plating bearing several crosses and Byzantine monograms. At the top of the right-hand door is a fragment of an inscription, MIXAHA NIKHTHN (‘Michael of the Conquerors ’). All the doors bear crosses which the Turks have altered to resemble trident prongs.
The nave is entered through nine gates, the central one of which was formerly styled “ Pyle Vasilike ” or Royal Gate, and is that through which the Emperor entered, and where he was met by the Patriarch. On the bronze cornice over the gate is carved a lectern and a copy of the Gospels. The book is represented as open at the passage from St. John : ‘ I am the door : by me if any man enter in, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and find pasture ”. The four mosaic figures above this cornice are now but dimly visible through the wash the Turks have put over them. The figure between the medallions of the Virgin and St. John the Baptist is Christ seated on a throne. His right hand holds a volume open at the words ‘ Peace be unto you; I am the light of the world ’; and with his left he is blessing a kneeling emperor.
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The first modern Bulgarian school in Plovdiv
The City Art Gallery of Plovdiv was set up in 1952. Its permanent exhibition is arranged in the historic building of the Girls’ School. The first modern Bulgarian school in Plovdiv, opened in 1850, was housed in a building on this site. It was also known by the name of SS. Cyril and Metho-dius Plovdiv Eparchial School. It was here that the day of the creators of the Bulgarian alphabet was first celebrated on May 11th 1856 on the initiative of Naiden Gerov and Yoakim Gruev.
Thus May 11th became an all-Bulgarian holiday during the Revival. In 1868 the Boys’ School grew into a secondary school and moved into another building, while the newly-founded Girls’ School was accommodated here. Soon after the Liberation the number of students increased and, moreover, it became necessary to build a girls’ secondary school, too. So in 1881 the present imposing building was erected on the site of the old school. It was designed by Joseph Schnitter, an architect from Plovdiv.
ICON COLLECTION
of the City Art Gallery 22 Saborna Street
The icon collection of the City Art Gallery of Plovdiv was founded in 1975. It was laid out in the school at the SS. Constantine and Helena Church. The icons in the exhibition belong to the 15th -19th centuries. They are remarkable works of art produced in Plovdiv and its area, but also in other parts of South Bulgaria bulgaria private tours. There are icons painted by the most eminent Revival artists such as Zahari Tsanyov from Tryavna, Hristo Dimitrov and his sons Dimiter and Zahari Zograf from Samokov, Nikola Odrinchanin and other representatives of the Tryavna, Samokov and Adrianople Schools of painting.
The old-world school building housing the collection has original architecture. It is a long rectangular structure whose shorter walls end in imposing triangular pediments, imparting to the house the appearance of an antique temple. The foundations of the building stand right on the fortress wall of the acropolis south of Hisar Gate and next to the so- called Round Tower.
‘TSANKO LAV RE NOV’ P ERMANENT EXHIBITION
(Kirkor Mesrobovich House) 11 Artin Gidikov Street
This exhibition of the work of the great artist Tsanko Lavrenov (1896 – 1978) has been displayed on the spacious ground floor of the Mesrobovich period-house since 2002. The paintings belong to the City Art Gallery fund of Plovdiv.
The house was built in 1846 on a perfectly symmetrical plan and has ceilings opulently decorated with woodcarving in all the rooms on the ground and upper floor. Its original owner Kirkor Mesrobovich, a notable Armenian from Plovdiv was a big landowner and money-lender and one of the founders of the ‘Brothers Mesrobovitch’ firm which continued in business for decades before and after the Liberation.
There is a second exhibition on the ground floor – of Mexican art, which displays works by Mexican artists of the 20th century. The rich collection was presented to Bulgaria on the occasion of the 1300th anniversary of the Bulgarian State and was first shown to the public in 1981 on its present site.
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