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Positive Affect
Does being happy, and having positive affect make a person live longer, or allow a person to not develop a disease. It is noted that studies have stated and found that positive affect can increase survival, improve immune function, and lower the chances of getting diabetes or feeling negative emotion (Davidson, Mostofsky, Whang, 2010). Positive affect refers to having pleasurable emotion such as happiness, excitement, contentment, joy. It is the idea of having positive affect majority of the days, showing positive attributes, and feeling theses positive emotions. Obviously, someone who is majority of the time happy, full of joy and content can experience the feeling of angry, anxious and other negative emotion at time but they do not allow these negative emotions to take over. In general, a large population of people who generally feel positive affect can have a reduced risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) (Davidson et al., 2010). That being say CHD is associated much with feelings of negative emotions, so people who express and feel positive affect have a less of a chance of developing CHD. Furthermore, people who express and feel positive affect seem to be more likely to stay active, higher socioeconomic status, better development so this could be a possible third variable to why those people that express and feel positive affect have a less of a chance of developing CHD.
Davidson, W. K., Mosotofsky, E., & Whang, W. (2010) Don’t worry, be happy: positive affect and reduced 10-year incident coronary heart disease: The Canadian Nova Scotia Health Survey. European Heart Journal, 31, 1065- 1070. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp603
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Gender and Culture
Gender can differ across culture. It was noted that Western culture men/women reported higher scores of agency and assertiveness, whereas Eastern cultures reported higher scores on collectivism and relatedness (Heine, 2016). These four concept can relate to the idea of independence and interdependence. Agency and assertiveness are more self-based approach that would relate to independence, whereas collectivism and relatedness seem to be more a people/group based approach and related to interdependence. There were also gender difference reported among these factors, that women reported higher relatedness, but no gender difference among collectivism, agency or assertiveness (Heine, 2016). I find this interesting because I would agree of an assertiveness among western culture but I would assume there would have been a gender difference where males reported higher score on assertiveness then women. From personal experience, playing sports in all male division all my life and a few years having a woman manager, then other years having a man manager I found assertiveness was relevant among men compared to women. Heine (2016) mention that women are more interdependent than men this is because of women attention to other feelings and concerns. I would agree with this statement because I found this relevant among my managers throughout my hockey years. Also a question can be raised when learning about women reporting to be more interdependent than men is do cultural norms dictate women should be pay more attention and care more than men? Another area where gender and culture differ is gender equality. It is relevant that cultural differences appear in the way people view issues of gender equality (Heine, 2016). Learning throughout women and gender courses, as well different psychology and sociology course it has been learned that people in some cultures believe women should be treated the same as men, but in other countries it is believed that men should have more rights and power over women. For example, in Arab nations there is a low percentage of women in elected offices, whereas in Swedish parliament there is a percentage of over 45% (Heine, 2016). This statement can be relevant when discussing the topic of power and rights, knowing more men have more powerful position then women. It is also worth noting that even in North America, men hold a higher percentage of CEO jobs than females. Also the view of gender differ across countries, Finland and Germany express views that men and women should be treated equally, whereas countries such as India or Pakistan express views that roles, obligation, rights of men are important and have more than women (Heine, 2016). Overall, it Is suggest that gender can differ across cultures when looking at factors that are associated to women and men as well as gender equity.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Parenting Styles
Parenting styles would differ across culture, a Chinese parent would raise a child and parent differently than a North American parent. There are three different parenting styles that are relevant; authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting and permissive parenting. Authoritarian parenting refers strict rules and little discussion between child and parent, low levels of warmth and responsiveness (Heine, 2016). Authoritative parenting refers to child centered approach, with high expectation of maturity, understanding of children feeling, encourage children to be independent, as well parental warmth and responsiveness (Heine, 2016). Finally, permissive parenting is involved with children, expression of parental warmth and responsiveness but little limit and controls on children behavior (Heine, 2016). Each parenting style can result in different outcomes among children. In a Western population content child with authoritative parenting leads to the best outcome in terms of parental warmth, school achievement, autonomy and acceptance (Heine, 2016). Whereas authoritarian parenting styles are common among non-western culture such as East, Southeast Asia, Iran, Latin America, etc (Heine, 2016). It is important to note that not all parents in these countries would be an authoritarian parenting style, but many are authoritarian parenting style. Not only do parenting style differ across cultures, the outcome of parenting styles differ across culture. Such as increased parental control in countries such as Japan, China report increased family cohesion, acceptance, parent warmth and academic achievement (Heine, 2016). This note can differ from European American culture, children that received any pressure form mother reported it as a feeling of negative and not supportive (Heine, 2016). Overall, the chapter can suggest that parenting styles differ across culture, as well the outcome of parenting styles different across culture. Strict parenting can be seen as positive in one country but negative in the next country.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Multiculturalism
Living in a multicultural world refer that people are living in countries that they were not born in. Heine (2016) states that there is an estimate of 130 million people living in countries that they are not born in. Many countries population have immigrants from other places. For example, Canada is a major country where immigrants migrate too. People living in other countries that they were not original born from results in people encountering other people cultures. Within the last few years, Canada has been allowing Syrian refugees to come over to Canada this results in a different culture coming to Canada. Also an another case of more immigrants coming to Canada was the Haitian. Cornwall ON, accepted a few hundred Haitian in. These are two different cultures that came to Canada, as well there are many other people from around the world coming. Canada is very accepting when it comes to allowing people in, it would be considered multicultural. When people come to Canada or other countries they were not originally from, they may go through the process of Acculturation. Heine (2016) mentions acculturation where people migrate to and learn a culture that is different form their original culture. Acculturation may be experienced differently among people this is because people move for different reasons such as; work, be closer to family, study aboard, there a refugee and they have no choice, etc. Also acculturation can be affected by the environment they move to, some people may move to an environment that already discriminate against their culture, some move to an environment that is accepting of their culture (Heine, 2016). Furthermore, acculturating individuals can be challenging to determine common patterns and to learn new culture. As well, moving to a new culture means new adjustment, may mean learning a new language, or becoming accustomed to new values, etc. It would be considered a learning path, may result in emotional experiences. One aspect people experience when moving to a new country is culture shock. Heine (2016) refers culture shock as feeling helpless, irritable and homesick due to moving to a new culture. This may happen because of a language barrier, no friendship with locals, not adapting to the values within that culture, etc. Culture shock may happen to some people, but may not happen to others.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Motivation and Self Enhancement
It is suggested that there is a cultural difference in how people are motivated. A type of motivation which is self-enhancement is the motivation that one views themselves positively. A question I wonder is whether people from collectivistic culture have as strong motivation to enhance themselves like people from individualistic culture. Noted in the textbook that people from North American have a strong need to view themselves positively (Heine, 2016). Studies have looked at the cultural variation in positive self-views and found that European Americans had a higher positive self-view than Mexican Americans did by choosing more positive characteristics towards their own personal picture then other pictures presented (Heine, 2016). Another study looked at Native Americans and European Americans describing themselves in open-ended questions to see their positive self-views. Results suggested that the Native Americans were less positive about themselves then the European Americans (Heine, 2016). Results from both studies can suggest that independence and self-positivity can relate, that people who are independent view themselves more positively then people who are involve in a collectivistic culture. Many people in an individualistic culture rate a high positive self-view towards themselves but people in collectivistic culture don’t a reason may be that people in collectivistic culture may view those type of people as ‘braggers’ or ‘show-offs.’ This may be because in a collectivistic culture all people are equal, the same and the formation of relationships are extremely important to them and their roles in their culture. Where relationship and roles are more important to have positive views rather than positive self-views.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Emotions
Emotions can be difficult to define; people have many different views on what emotions are. People are quite aware when they feel angry, happy, or afraid because these feelings are important experiences in our lives. To people, emotion is a central part in our personal world. Even though emotions are central to people’s personal world, describing the feeling of the emotion is not always easy. The reason people’s emotions differ around the world is because there is a disagreement on how people can define emotion. One theory that help determine whether the nature of emotion is universal is James-Lange theory of emotion (Heine, 2016). James Lange theory of emotion states emotions are mostly perception of physiological responses to stimuli (Heine, 2016). Our bodies prepare us to respond to a stimulus in a way of a survival-facilitating way. Emotions are bodily changes that determines how we should behave in a situation. For example, when my dad was surveying the grounds behind the Renfrew Dump, he ran into a bear his first feeling was heart beating fast, as well as the feeling of fear. Foremost, people have a wide variety of emotion, which suggest that people would have a wide variety of different bodily state (Heine, 2016). For example, when someone feels embarrassed or nervous they feel blood rushing to their face. Although, James Lange theory of emotion can be accurate, researchers have also included emotions can be neural patterns, nonverbal expression, subjective feelings and more. Another theory of emotion is the two-factor theory of emotion are our interpretation of physiological response to stimuli (Heine, 2016). The focus of emotions is redirected away our physical body but directed into the mind. Furthermore, there are two theories that suggest the different views of emotion which determines if the emotion is universal or culturally adaptive. The two factory theory of emotion suggest that emotions are based in belief system that shape people’s interpretation (Heine, 2016). This is where emotion can differ through cultures because in the two factory theory of emotion people can interpret their physiological signals in different ways among cultures. Whereas the James Lange theory of emotion can be universal because all people experience physiological reactions to various events.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Physical Health in Culture
Across culture there are two distinct explanation for biological variation, which are innate biological differences and acquired biological differences. Henie (2016) mentions that each person has genetics, as well each person around the world is genetically unique, having their own genetic variants that are not the same to anyone else (only if you have a twin). Although people have unique genetics, some individuals do share genetic variants with other people who typically have the same ancestor origins. As learned, humans are less genetically different from one another compared to other species but humans genes differ across different population (Heine, 2016). One physical health that is noticeable different among cultures is skin color. People across cultures have different skin colors that range from dark brown that is among African Americans to people that have a yellow tone which can be people from northern European (Heine, 2016). The reason for this variation can be justified by the body’s ability to produce vitamin D and the amount of ultraviolent radiation (UVR) that is surrounded the area the person is living in. Furthermore, the amount of UVR around the world is different so this can help explain why people have different colored skin among cultures. Another way that culture differs in physical health ways is weight. Weight can be a genetic factor but it is also not the only factor, culture can play an important role in cross cultural differences among body weight (Heine, 2016). It is known that Americans have high obesity rates, whereas Kenyans are underweight. When I visited Maasai Mara Kenya, a lot of males asked the girls and myself if we were pregnant because we were bigger than the average female in Kenya. Amercians have many fast food areas within their culture, and it is the norm to eat out weekly, as well in Maasai Mara Kenya there are no fast food places. Overall, there are many physical health related issues and topics that differ across culture.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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How Globalized Am I?
Globalization can allow people to become in contact with different parts of the world, and experience different diverse cultures (Heine, 2016). When I think about how globalized I am I would have to agree that I am fairly globalized. Living in Canada, which seems much to be a multiculturalism society, I have also travel and spent time in different cultures. One place I traveled to and experienced there culture was Kenya Africa. I spent over two weeks living in the Maasai Mara Kenya. I lived out of an army tent, and experience Kenyans culture, I watched a goat get slaughter which was a ritual among Kenyans. Also while being there we did water carries, which is how Kenyan women get their water for cooking, cleaning, etc. I also experienced Kenyan grade 9 education, as well as staying in a hut one night. Throughout the two weeks, I experienced much of Kenyans culture. After visiting Kenyan much of myself changed with how I started to use things, I learned to take quicker showers and ever since then my showers have been shorter, as well I appreciate the opportunities get granted in living in Canada. As well after experiencing Kenya culture my perception on aspects around the world changed, I became more accepting, stopped generalizing culture to culture, stopped labeling people from other cultures and more. Overall, I believe there are aspects of myself that were shaped by another culture, but predominately most aspects are shaped by the culture I live in today.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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Psychological Processes vary Across Culture
Peoples psychology and thoughts can vary across culture. Major key psychological processes are thinking, sensing, learning, perception and each individual across cultures can vary. One way to determine this is understanding people’s sense of humor. Heine (2016) mentions that what someone may think is funny in their culture may think is disturbing, not funny in their culture. People in Ontario will view something as funny because we all have similar preferences whereas people in Nova Scotia do not have the same preferences as Ontarians. People in Nova Scotia could have funny jokes and a great sense of humor about whales and the ocean whereas Ontarians would not find that funny or have a sense a humor around those topics. Other ways that psychological processes can vary across culture is how individuals view food, sexual partners, guns, killing, etc. It is the cultural you were raised in that would have influence on how you view these topics. For example, within a Canadian context we view killing as something terribly horrible whereas terrorist view killing as becoming powerful and acceptable. Psychological processes can vary across cultures because one culture faces a cultural idea they as a culture will look into detail about the idea, tend to create thoughts, beliefs and behaviors around the idea which would play a role within the psychological process of an individual. Overall, culture starts from the different interaction of people’s mind, then how the mind functions is shaped by the culture therefore should result in people’s thoughts, action, psychological processes should vary.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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“Hook up” Culture
In today culture many people during adolescence and young adults consider it the “hook up” culture. Reiber and Garcia (2010) mention “hook up” culture as participating in a no-strings/ no-feeling attached sexual behavior with an uninterested partner. It is a culture that can result in diseases, psychological trauma, possible pregnancy, and physical damage. It seem to appear that the “hook up” culture has become conscious to many people in university, college as a popular thing to do. Culture of “dating” and romantic relationship has developed into a culture of “hook up” and uncommitted relationships. As starting university, I have seen firsthand witnessed “hook up” incidences. I work at safety and security at STFX where I have witness people go home with one another after the bar or a residence party without even knowing one another. I have also witness individual “hooking up” outside of residences or buildings and leaving one another right after it has occurred. The “hook up” culture is popular in today’s society as Reiber and Garcia (2010) mention that 65% to around 80% of undergraduate participants have reported that they engaged in a hook up once in their university or college years. As read in Reiber and Garcia (2010) article it seems to mention different reason why it is a hook up culture today. Reiber and Garcia (2010) mention that media and magazine coverage has an influence on the “hook up” culture but not only are the reasons. I would agree with this statement because many magazines promote and give tips on how to hook up such as Cosmo, also media portrays that hooking up is cool to do. Several movies have showed people ending up in another person bed after a night out for example “Friends with Benefits, What’s Your Number.” Overall, culture can be viewed and understood from many different viewpoints but in the views of young adults and adolescent is only really seen through a hook up culture.
Reiber, C. & Garcia, J.R. (2010). Hooking up: Gender differences, evolution and pluralistic ignorance, Evolutionary Psychology, 8(3), 390-404
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What is Culture?
Culture in my views is surrounded our daily life and activity but many are unaware of it most of the time. Many people across the world can view culture different. When people are asked what they think of culture, many people mention symbolic items, different rituals, music, language, artifacts. If someone gave these answer they wouldn’t be wrong but they wouldn’t be right. Culture is studied, taught and communal among many generation, communities, and people. Heine (2016) mention that culture is any kind of habit, practice, idea that is taught through learning from others. Within one culture, people are visible to many of the same cultural ideas. For example, living in Canada many people experience winter, enjoy Canadian foods such as poutine, beaver tails and more. Whereas when I went to Kenya I realized how different their cultural was in terms of the food, the weather, what they enjoyed and practiced. This shows that culture is unique. Another aspect of culture is that it is learned, forgotten and tends to change. Heine (2016) mentions that cultural can be forgotten because new habits are learned which replaces the old ones. For example, when technology came out, we started to text people rather than call them, we started to facetime people rather than going to visit them. Overall, culture is out there surrounding the world as learned in Tomasello (2016) that both humans and primates are involved in culture.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Tomasello, M. (2016). The ontogeny of cultural learning. Current Opinion in
Psychology, 8, 1-4.
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Who am I?
I am Caucasian
I am athletic
I am broad
I am hard worker
I am Canadian
I am a sister
I am a daughter
I am an auntie
I am a lover of psychology
I am a dog lover
I am a hockey fan
I am a goalie
I am a student
I am a worker
I am determined
I am hyperactivity
I am powerlifter
I am a heterosexual
I am passionate
I am Irish
My following self-description gives cultural meaning in my life and meaning to others. Each self-description has shaped my life to develop who I am today. I was born in Canada, I grew up in a small town where I learned many aspects of life. Living in Canada and from a small town has shaped my cultural background. As learned in Heine (2016) self-description can either be superficial or deeper. Most of my self-description list can be viewed as superficial, where who I am today has resulted in participating in an activity in my culture. For example, if I didn’t grow up in Canada I would not have the best privilege to play hockey and to become a goalie. Also growing up in a small town allowed me to become involved with a powerlifting association, being involved with powerlifting has had an impact on my life. Powerlifting taught me to be determined, hard work and to be truly passionate about something. Furthermore, these sports are important to Canadian culture, whereas when I went to Kenya Africa, it was noticeable that soccer (football) was extremely important to them. Heine (2016) mentions that countries don’t always differ, it differs in how we are exposed to different sports or activities. As my above example states hockey and powerlifting is important to Canada but soccer is important to Africa which shows were similar because sports are important to our culture but even shows that were different. Also across countries it is worth noting that people across the world can think and do for themselves but varies across cultures. I would consider my self-description as personal characteristic, where Heine (2016) mentions that other cultures such as Masai, Samburu and more mention roles and memberships rather than personal characteristic. This is where people across the world can think for themselves but what people are thinking can vary. Overall, this suggest that humans are distinctly different but universal the same.
Heine, S. J. (2016). Cultural psychology. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
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